Is public transit meeting the needs of women? A gender audit of two Asian metro systems

Figures & data

Table 1. Barriers affecting women’s travel.

Barriers	Type of barrier	Patterns	Group affected
Cultural	Religious norms/ practices Women as primary caregivers for children & parents Women primarily responsible for domestic chores	Banning women from public settings, public transit, bicycles Shorter trips Accompanied by others in travel Trip chaining/ hypermobility Carrying large items during travel	Women in some Muslim countries Women in Global North and Global South Women in Global North Women in Global North and Global South
Economic	Lack of economic resources for private automobile Having to live in peripheral shanty towns/colonias	Transit dependency Lack of access to public transportation Localized mobility patterns; many foot trips	Poor men and women in the Global North and Global South Poor men and women in the Global South Poor men and women in the Global South
Physical	Automobile-oriented urban form/ sprawl Lack of adequate infrastructure for walking Limited transit networks	Overreliance on private automobiles Long time spent on transportation Unsafe and uncomfortable travel	Women in the Global North Women in the Global North and Global South Women in the Global South
Psychological	Fear of harassment and victimization Parental fear of stranger -danger	Avoidance of public transit, bicycles Avoidance of transit routes Travelling only during daytime Travelling only accompanied by others	Women in the Global North and Global South

Source: Loukaitou-Sideris (2020). Used with permission.

Figure 1. Seoul Metro subway, Lines 2 (light green) and 7 (dark green).

Source: The Seoul Institute (2013).

Table 2. Seoul Metro ridership by line.

Subway line	Passengers/day (millions)
Line 2	2.24
Line 7	1.05
Line 4	0.96
Line 3	0.93
Line 5	0.92
Line 6	0.57
Line 1	0.50
Line 8	0.29

The two audited lines are highlighted in grey.

Source: Seoul Metropolitan Government (2017).

Figure 2. Jakarta Integrated Rail Transit Map. MRT Jakarta Phase 1 (blue) and Phase 2 (purple).

Source: Forum Diskusi Transportasi Jakarta (2018). Used with permission.

Table 3. MRT Jakarta ridership.

Months	Passengers/day (millions)
April	0.079
May	0.073
June	0.082
July	0.093
August	0.083
September	0.091
October	0.089

Source: MRT Jakarta (2019)

Table 4. Gender audit protocol.

	Item	Description	Reason
Safety and Security	CCTV surveillance	The station has camera surveillance in all public areas. | There are no blind spots (without surveillance)	CCTV cameras monitor passengers’ actions and spot suspicious behaviours and other security risks (Loukaitou-Sideris 2014).
	Security guards	The station has patrols/security officers on foot and/or in an office in the station	Potential threats can be detected quickly. Staff presence increases security levels more than security technology (Loukaitou-Sideris 2014).
	Emergency services	The station is equipped with tools (including emergency phones or buttons) and facilities to prevent potential crimes (including gate scanners and platform screen doors, etc.) inside and outside	Risk of crime including sexual harassment can be prevented. Women may feel more secure and protected.
	Lighting	Both the inside and the outside of the station are well-lit | Sight obstructions by objects in the station are minimized	This may help women to feel safer especially at night (Loukaitou-Sideris 2014).
	Crowd density	Managed crowd density in the platform, concourse and outside stations (both stationary and moving crowds)	Women tend to avoid public transport during peak hours (dur to overcrowding) and at night (due to security).
Accessibility	Entrances and exits	All types of pedestrian access are provided to enter and exit the station | Access of prams/mobility devices is unobstructed	Women often travel accompanied by with children, pushing prams and/or carrying groceries
	Navigation within stations	Moving around within the station is easy and routes are as direct as possible	Trip chaining leaves women time-poor (Zhou et al. 2020).
	Transfers and connectivity	Transfers to adjoining subway lines are well-signed | Platforms are well-linked | Transport modes are well integrated and near the station | Park ‘n’ ride and drop-off/pick-up zones are provided	Women pushing prams or using mobility devices need quick access on foot. Some women have no access to a car and are driven to stations by male partners/relatives.
	Station surroundings	Crosswalks are provided on surrounding roads connecting all sides of the station where applicable | Kerbs are dropped on all sides of pedestrian pathways | Pedestrian pathways are wide and well-paved	Wider pedestrian pathways, low/dropped kerbs and crosswalks are more useful to women as they travel on foot/public transport more often and may be accompanied by children or others (Loukaitou-Sideris 2014)
Facilities and services	Public toilets	Accessible toilets for prams/children/mobility devices are provided| Baby-changing areas are provided | Children’s toilets or family toilets (for parents with children of different genders) are provided | Entrances to female and male toilets are clearly visible from a distance to recognize who is entering | Gender-neutral toilets (for non-binary individuals) are provided where appropriate	Women spend longer queueing for toilets than men. Women visit toilets more often and take longer inside stalls, for reasons such as menstruation or childcare. Genders and religious groups may feel more secure and comfortable using male or female-only toilets (Greed 2019).
	Lactation/nursing rooms	Private nursing rooms and facilities are provided which accommodate baby-changing and breastfeeding	These facilities can help to boost the mobility of mothers of newborns and toddlers (Yantzi, Rosenberg, and McKeever 2007).
	Information and wayfinding	Directions, signage, maps, and guides are provided at frequent intervals | Visual and audible displays are installed at stations	During wayfinding, women tend to experience higher anxiety than man (Lawton and Kallai 2002). Women with prams/groceries may find it harder to read direction signs and look for information.
	Shopping outlets	Retail/convenience shops are available in the stations	Women can complete household chores such as shopping while commuting (Gil Solá and Vilhelmson 2022).

Table 5. Audit results.

Categories		Seoul Metro	MRT Jakarta
Safety and security	CCTV Surveillance	Equipped with CCTV operating 24/7 in all areas | Provides ‘safety zones’ | Blind spots exist due to larger, thicker pillars especially in some older stations	Equipped with CCTV operating 24/7 in all areas Interior design allows officers to easily monitor inflow/outflow of passengers Blind spots found in elevated stations, especially on platform areas between the pillars glass fences
	Security guards	Presence of security guards on foot is rare | Police centres often located on transfer stations	Security guard presence is visible in most areas of stations and trains
	Emergency services	Newly designed emergency equipment installed at busiest stations | New emergency phones and buttons on Line 2 while Line 7 retains older versions	Relatively new and modern emergency measures installed at all stations | Special trains for women at certain hours
	Lighting	Lighting in most stations adequate | Lack of lighting found outside elevated stations, especially at night | Inadequate lighting and/or use of grey-toned tiles on some cylindrical pillars causing sight obstructions and blind areas | Installation of square pillars increases light and visibility	Lighting in most stations is adequate | Lack of lighting found at outside elevated stations, especially at night | Blind spots, particularly at night, detected in platform areas of elevated stations | Underground station lighting is adequate
	Crowd density	Crowd density depends on activities surrounding stations | Larger crowds found at stations near active commercial and retail activities | Stations in residential areas are less crowded | Concourse is generally the most crowded area of station | At peak times, crowds may limit sight and block important information signs	Crowd density depends on activities surrounding stations | Larger crowds found at stations near active commercial and retail activities | Stations in residential areas are less crowded | Concourse is generally the most crowded area of station | Stations are crowded during peak hours (but less than at Seoul Metro)
Accessibility	Entrances and exits	Some stations are equipped with elevators or escalators | Wheelchair lift attached to stairways installed at some stations	All stations equipped with stairs, elevators and escalators | Exiting is problematic at some stations as different exits from the concourse lead to different connecting modes
	Navigation within stations	Excessive detouring required to enter and exit some stations, especially for passengers needing elevators | Less connectivity between stations and adjoining semi-private spaces	Excessive detouring required to enter and exit some stations, especially for passengers needing elevators | Unclear information and signage on connecting modes at some stations
	Transfers and connectivity	Transferring to adjoining subway lines from is not straightforward | Shortcut passage to connect platforms is provided but not accessible for people with mobility impairments | Transit connectivity between buses and subway is well structured	Transferring at underground stations is easier than at elevated stations | At elevated stations passengers must detour to reach the opposite platform | All stations are near TransJakarta stops but only one station is physically connected | Access to bus stops is difficult at some stations due to narrow sidewalks or steep crosswalks
	Station surroundings	Crosswalks are available at all stations | Sidewalks are wide and have lowered curbs | Older areas retain poor-quality construction | Some crosswalks are located further away from the station exits	Crosswalks are available at all stations | Lowered curbs and wide sidewalks are only available in the immediate vicinity of stations but not beyond | Most stations have pedestrian bridges with steep stairs/ramps
Facilities and services	Public toilets	Public toilets are available at all stations | Public toilets on Line 7 have inadequate lighting | Public toilets on Line 2 are visible and well-lit | Inaccessible toilets for people with prams/mobility issues | Long queueing for women’s public toilets	Public toilets available at all stations | All accessible toilets have sufficient space, lighting, emergency equipment | Public toilets at some stations are not accessible from platform
	Lactation/nursing rooms	All stations have nursing/lactation rooms with adequate facilities and proximity to offices | Some nursing rooms are difficult to access and located in inconspicuous areas | All nursing rooms need help from officers to unlock door	All stations have nursing/lactation rooms with adequate facilities and proximity to offices | All nursing rooms can be easily accessed without assistance from station officers | Signs such as ‘occupied’ at front doors needed to prevent intruders
	Information and wayfinding	All stations provide adequate signs and signage to direct passengers	All stations provide adequate signs and signage to direct passengers
		Information is hard to find in crowded situations | Commercial advertisements are overused	In most underground stations, directional signs from platform to public facilities are limited | Map information on areas surrounding exits is insufficient
	Shopping outlets	Some retail stores are distant from main traffic flows	Only some stations provide retail shops and have connectivity to larger shopping centres

Figure 3. Massive circular pillars are blocking sightlines at Seoul Metro.

Photo by authors.

Figure 4. ‘Safety zones’ on Seoul Metro platforms.

Photo by authors.

Figure 5. Security scanning at the entrance of MRT Jakarta.

Photo by authors.

Figure 6. Lack of lighting in the street below Seoul Metro stations.

Photo by authors.

Figure 7. The presence of street vendors near MRT Jakarta stations increases the sense of security, especially at night.

Photo by authors.

Figure 8. Passengers need to climb steep stairs when exiting Seoul Metro.

Photo by authors.

Figure 9. Parking area for people with disabilities (only available at Lebak Bulus MRT Jakarta station).

Source: Pamela Sakina, Sandi Arizona, Ardi Irawan – antaranews.com. Used with permission.

Figure 10. Physical integration between MRT Jakarta and TransJakarta BRT at Bundaran HI. Elevators are available.

Photo by authors.

Figure 11. Broken or uneven yellow tactiles hamper the mobility of people with disability at Seoul Metro.

Photo by authors.

Figure 12. Clean and accessible toilets are available at all MRT Jakarta stations.

Photo by authors.

Figure 13. Accessible toilet with a wider door at Seoul Metro.

Photo by authors.

Figure 14. Nursing/lactation room at MRT Jakarta.

Photo by authors.

Figure 15. Nursing room at Seoul Metro.

Photo by authors.

Figure 16. Directional signage indicates women-only train cars on MRT Jakarta.

Photo by authors.

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