Artificial Intelligence in Influencer Marketing: A Mixed-Method Comparison of Human and Virtual Influencers on Instagram

Figures & data

Table 1. Exemplar Instagram post captions.

Influencer type	Caption	Sentiment
Human influencer	I’m so in love with you honey. Our first dance was to Danny’s song. We fell in love with this song as we were first planning our wedding. To me … it’s about enjoying the simple things, love over everything, and family. Those three things ring true for me and are what I hope will encompass our marriage and life together. What was your (will be) your first dance song? #covidbride #dannyssong #brideandgroom #brideandgroomdance #weddingdress #weddingphotography #longislandbride #bridesoflongisland #happycouple #couplegoals #couplephotography #wegotmauid #photocredit @torilopezphotography @_torilopez	+585
Human influencer	When you start to recognize your own worth within yourself, you won’t feel the need to prove it to others. #esobeauty #esobabes	−10
Virtual influencer	Do you know that great feeling when you feel whole, loved and strong? Total self-acceptance is empowering. When I began to love myself, I understood that under all circumstances I am in the right place at the right time, and everything happens for the right reason. Please type if you love yourself as you are!	+3411
Virtual influencer	Ah, shit, here we go again! Hello, Russia!	−4

Figure 1. Sentiment analysis of Instagram posts (Bing lexicon).

Table 2. Exemplar Instagram post captions from the topic models.

Influencer type	Topic label	Caption
Human influencer	1: Opinion Leadership (Content)	Had a much needed date night with the husband last night. It felt great to get out and spend some one on one time. We decided to hit up the @commonsclubnola at the new @virginhotelsnola here in NOLA. Bring ya man, grab your girls because its a vibe. Before we sat down for dinner we headed to the @poolclubnola on the 13th floor for some drinks on the roof. We got there around 7 which was the perfect time to experience the beautiful sunset and view. Shot (sic) out to @lifeofthepartyvhnola for taking such good care of us. If you’re into rum, order the Mai Gai! The @commonsclubnola did not disappoint either! We sat outside because the weather was so nice. Had the patio all to ourself so that was an extra bonus. The steak we ordered was cooked perfectly with the right amount of seasoning. Our server was so sweet and attentive. We will definitely be back. Since the weather felt great I pulled out the sweater vest I got from @zara a few weeks ago. I paired it with my pink trousers from @zara. Fam, don’t put your color away just because we are changing seasons. (well everyone except NOLA. Its either hot AF here of southern cold) Bring those bright pieces into fall. Also! If you don’t have a sweater vest, you need to grab one. They are very versatile. You can dress them up by pairing them with slacks, a blazer or a skirt, layer them over a button down or dress it down with some jeans or shorts, layer them over a tee. The Skys the limit with this piece. Ok. Your take aways from this post are 1. Go visit the @virginhotelsnola 2. Buy a sweater vest
Human influencer	2: Product Endorsement (Beauty)	@patmcgrathreal new Skin Fetish Divine Blush in Divine Rose #patmcgrathlabsgiftedme is a beautiful rose shade that will suit most skin tones. The formula is soft and blends seamlessly on the skin. This is the type of blush that I would wear year round. It gives the perfect rose flush on the cheeks! Have you tried the new blushes? #divineblush #divineblushcollection #octolyfamily #patmcgrath #makeupswatches #newatsephora
Human influencer	3: Opinion Leadership (Affiliate Links)	Puff sleeve summer. // use link in bio @jillgg for sizing info and to shop #ShopStyle @shopstyle
Human influencer	4: Product Endorsement (Fashion)	It looks like it’s going to be a beautiful weekend here! So I see a lot of long walks in our future! Swipe to see how incredibly cute these shorts are—and only $15?! They also come in leopard which are really cute too! Both the shorts & tank are from Amazon & linked in the blog post in my bio! #gifted http://liketk.it/3db02 #liketkit @liketoknow.it #LTKunder50 #LTKfit #LTKsalealert #ltkunder25 #ltkunder20 #ougesfashion #ougesdress #ouges @ougesclothes @ougesdress
Human influencer	5: Expressing Gratitude (Life Experiences)	Summer, I have appreciated every single bit of warmth and brightness you have brought this year. The early morning sunlight coffee when we weren’t able to go anywhere, the get together with friends on picnics, spending hours talking about everything and anything, and warm summer evenings on the beach, that were better than any date night in a fancy restaurant. As you pass the Sun to Autumn, if you could have a word and ask for the days to still be sunny, albeit a little shorter and cooler I would love that #latesummerdays
Human influencer	6: Expressing Gratitude (Followers)	Thank you for the love on my selfie and thank you for making my day better, I was so upset last night because of the hate on my YouTube video but I learnt no matter how well I produce content and credit people, some people will just simply hate because they’re uneducated and stubborn I refuse to stop doing what I love because of bullies, and you guys should 100% do what makes YOU happy and not let anyone stop you PRODUCTS: @elfcosmeticsuk putty primer and hydrating concealer @uomabeauty foundation @hudabeauty powder @maccosmeticsuk water weight powder @benefitcosmeticsuk brows ka brow and cookie highlighter @tomford bronzer @colourpopcosmetics blusher in wayfarer @morphebrushes x @madisonbeer eyeshadow palette (use code Ling for 10% off) @kvdveganbeauty gel pot in white @inglotuk gel liner pot in black @eylureofficial x ME lashes in Yass Queen! (Link in bio to shop) @juviasplace lipstick in cocoa and lipliner in kola Earrings @cherryontopjewellery Hat and sunglasses are second hand from @depop {Unsponsored}
Human influencer	7: Product Endorsement (Beauty + Discount Code)	What’s your favorite eyeshadow palette at the moment?!? Tell me in the comments ‼‼‼ Eyes: @gerardcosmetics clean canvas eye primer- fair, @scottbarnescosmetics THE ULTIMATE HOLIDAY MUSIC BOX, @makeupbymario master pigment pro pencil- super black, @moiracosmetics eye exposure pencil—silver, @lavaabeauty—Theron Face: @tomfordbeauty TRACELESS SOFT MATTE FOUNDATION − 3.5 ivory rose, @beautycreations.cosmetics concealer- C6, @givenchybeauty prisme libre − 03 voile rose, @scottbarnescosmetics THE ULTIMATE HOLIDAY MUSIC BOX (grande bronzer and pirouette blush) Lips: @makeupforever artist color pencil- endless cacao, @makeupforever ROUGE ARTIST INTENSE COLOR BEAUTIFYING LIPSTICK − 100 empowered beige and @maccosmetics holiday gloss (from the set)—frills n chills Headband: @thesparklenyc code ROSE for a discount #makeupreview #newmakeup
Virtual influencer	1: Opinion Leadership (Content)	2020. . Here’s to a peaceful New Year! . . Celebrating one year since starting this page by introducing the first ever male muse @alexgedefitness partnering with Alex we hope to bring you tonnes of new content this year!! . . #photography @arrondunworth . . #mixedreality #3Dart #3D #photography #virtualfitness #virtualinfluencer #digitalmodel
Virtual influencer	2: Product Endorsement (African Fashion)	Rocking in my beautiful African Outfit…Music Creds:@iamkankam #abawils #abawilsen #virtualinfluencer #virtualinfluencers #ghanavirtualinfluencer #africavirtualinfluencer #reallusion #africandresses #africanfashion #ghanafashion #photography #ghanadress
Virtual influencer	3: Identity Disclosure (VI)	Yes, I am virtual. Now you know me #konniviolet #iamvirtual #virtualinfluencer #ithinkiamcgi #digitalart #animegirl #virtualphotography #positivevibes
Virtual influencer	4: Identity Disclosure (CGI Model)	Please don’t fall #inlove with me . . . . #mdcommunity #virtualhuman #cgaexcellence #newvogue #dazstudio #cgimodel #beauty #lipstickaddict #makeuplips #inspirationmakeup #pinklips #beautybay #sephorafrance #virtualmodel #virtualmodels #digitalmodel #inbeautymag #beautycommunity #themakeupedit #greeneyes #blondehair #lipgloss #anastasiabeverlyhills #colorpopcosmetics #wmagazine#cosmopolitanmagazine #lilmiquela #newfacemodel
Virtual influencer	5: Product Endorsement (Vintage Fashion)	I found a new store with pre-loved fashion! I'm a huge vintage, second-hand and sustainable freak, and this shop has it all. @rotterdamresharestore curates second-hand items from @legerdesheils. At the second floor you’ll find the @hul_le_kes ReShared Collection. Unique and sustainable items from the Dutch designer @sjaakhullekes. Salvation Army items that are too faded or damaged to be sold, are selected by Sjaak and Sebas. These are mended and dyed, giving them new life. The result is a unique collection of one-of-a-kind items. What do you think of this outfit? #estherexplores #legerdesheils #resharestore #hullekes #sjaakhullekes #comfy #ootd #rotterdam
Virtual influencer	6: Identity Disclosure (Digital Art)	Keep it natural #cgi #fashion #virtualreality #digitalart #digitalmodel #model #sidefx #render #style #instagood #madewithclarisse #beauty #MarvelousDesigner #zbrush #digitalart #MadeWithSubstance #characterdesign #forest #fashionista #landscapephotography #pictureoftheday
Virtual influencer	7: Prosocial	If we walk through the world with open eyes, we see magic everywhere ⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯ ⋯⋯⋯ ⋯⋯ #butterfly #campfire #modernart #creative #artsy #nature #photoshop #naturelovers #naturephotography #wildlife #photooftheday
Virtual influencer	8: Product Endorsement (Fashion Inspiration)	Stay clean …………. #Fashion #Style #InstaFashion #digitalinfluencer #FashionBlogger #Fashionista #StreetStyle #Stylish #MensFashion #WomensFashion #InstaStyle #LookBook #WhatIWore #digitalmodel #StyleInspo #FashionBlogger #LookBook #WIWT #FashionWeek #FashionStyle #AMDigital #Blog #StyleBlogger #Amanda_bims #OutfitOfTheDay #virtualinfluencer

Figure 2. Unsupervised latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) topic models of Instagram posts.

Table 3. Two-way analysis of variance of influencer type and influencer tier on engagement.

Effect	SS	df	M^2	F	ηp^2
Influencer type	142	1	141.6	7.41 **	0.02
Influencer tier	393	3	131.0	6.86 ***	0.05
Influencer type × influencer tier	46	3	15.2	0.80	0.01
Error	7356	385	19.1

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Table 4. Two-way analysis of variance of influencer type and Instagram verification on engagement.

Effect	SS	df	M^2	F	ηp^2
Influencer type	201	1	200.9	10.17 ***	0.03
Instagram verification	27	1	27.1	1.37	0.00
Influencer type × Instagram verification	23	1	22.6	1.14	0.00
Error	7686	389	19.8

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Table 5. Two-way analysis of variance of influencer tier and Instagram verification on engagement.

Effect	SS	df	M^2	F	ηp^2
Instagram verification	27	1	27.1	1.43	0.02
Influencer tier	480	3	159.9	8.44 ***	0.05
Instagram verification × influencer tier	119	2	59.3	3.13 *	0.01
Error	7311	386	18.9

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Figure 3. Interaction of influencer tier and Instagram verification on engagement.