Determinants of household-level food and nutrition security in wheat farmers of Arsi Zone, Ethiopia

Figures & data

Figure 1. Location of the study area.

Table 1. Sample households distribution across districts and kebeles.

District	Kebele	Total HH	Percent	Sample HH
Dodota	Dodota Alem	889	9.00	38
	Amingna Debeso	648	6.56	28
	Lode Sharbe	729	7.38	31
Lode Hetosa	Adda Mare	827	8.37	35
	Malka Jabbi	903	9.14	39
	Fursa	778	7.88	33
	Boru Wadecha	887	8.98	38
Digalu Tijo	Burkitu Alkasa	805	8.15	34
	Fite Katara	782	7.92	33
	Lole Abusara	839	8.50	36
	Sagure Mole	842	8.53	36
	Alshabaqa Walqite	946	9.58	40
Total		9875	100	422

Source: Own survey, 2022.

Table 2. The study’s variable definitions, measurements and hypotheses.

Description of variables	Units of measurement	Expected effect
Dependent variables
Food and nutrition security	1 if secure and 0, otherwise
	1 if low, 2 if medium, and 3 if high level of nutritional status
Sex	1 if male, 0 if female	+
Farming experience	Experience of the head in Years	+
Education	Years of schooling	+
Family size	Measured in adult-equivalent	–
Dependency ratio	The ratio of dependent pop to total pop	–
Participation in safety net pr.	1 if accessed, 0, otherwise	+/–
Livestock holdings	Total livestock owned in TLU	+
Farm size	Total size of cultivated land in hectares	+
Training	1- if trained, 0- otherwise	+
Total income	Total annual income of HH in ETB	+
Access to Irrigation	1- user, 0- otherwise	+
Access to improved seed	1- accessed, 0- otherwise	+
Chemical fertilizers	Total chem.fertilizers applied on a hectare of land in Kg	+
Off/non-farm income	Total Off/non-farm income in ETB	+
Quantity of wheat produced	Total output of wheat from a hectare of land in Quintal	+
Vegetation coverage	1- covered, 0- otherwise	+
Distance to the nearest market	Distance from the nearest market in Km	–
Member of social inst.	1- accessed, 0- otherwise	+
Access to early warning inf.	1- accessed, 0- otherwise	+
Clean water	1- accessed, 0- otherwise	+
Cooperative membership	1- member, 0- otherwise	+
Market information	1- accessed, 0- otherwise	+
Soil fertility	1- fertile, 0- otherwise)	+
Distance to the health center	Distance from the health center in Km	–
Saving	1- saved, 0- otherwise	+

Table 3. Summary statistics of explanatory variables used in the study (N = 422).

		Food secure		Food insecure		Total		X^2 value
Dummy variables		No	%	No	%	No	%
SEXHH	Male	262	62.1	111	26.3	373	88.4	0.5822
	Female	37	8.8	12	2.8	49	11.6
Training	Yes	183	43.4	65	15.4	248	58.8	2.5127
	No	116	27.5	58	13.7	174	41.2
Access to improved wheat	Yes	290	68.7	112	26.5	402	95.3	6.7950***
	No	9	2.1	11	2.6	20	4.7
Access to irrigation	Yes	57	13.5	24	5.7	81	19.2	0.0113
	No	242	57.4	99	23.5	341	80.8
Vegetation coverage	Yes	54	12.8	15	3.6	69	16.4	2.1919
	No	245	58.1	108	25.6	353	83.7
Access to early warning inf	Yes	64	15.2	53	12.6	117	27.7	20.4509***
	No	235	55.7	70	16.6	305	72.3
Member of social institution	Yes	276	65.4	109	25.8	385	91.2	1.4833
	No	23	5.4	14	3.3	37	8.8

Table

Continuous variables
	Food secure		Food insecure		Total
Variable	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	t-value
EXPFRMING	37.06	12.44	23.31	11.33	27.32	13.22	11.00***
TOTFAMILY	3.47	1.29	6.17	1.73	4.26	1.88	17.58***
Off/non-farm inc.	24311.04	36930.97	23471.54	37269.14	24066.35	36987.48	0.2116
Farm size	3.36	1.95	2.87	1.78	3.02	1.84	2.47***
Livestock	5.14	2.38	4.03	2.38	4.36	2.43	4.33***
Freq of ext.Contact	2.11	1.41	1.46	1.43	1.92	1.45	4.26***
Chemical Fertilizers	321.75	157.33	248.93	135.23	270.15	145.66	4.79***
Distance to the nearest mkt	4.84	2.34	5.73	2.42	5.10	2.40	3.54***
Quantity of wheat produced	92.83	53.64	84.22	53.15	90.32	53.58	1.50

*** Significant at 1% significance level.

Source: Own computation based on survey data, 2022.

Table 4. Summary statistics of independent variables used in the nutritional status (N = 422).

	Low			Medium		High		Total		X^2 value
Dummy variable	No	%		No	%	No	%	No	%
SEXHH	Male	96	22.75	198	46.92	79	18.72	373	88.39	0.3048
	Female	14	3.32	24	5.69	11	2.61	49	11.61
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.33	422	100.00
PSNP	Yes	13	3.08	51	12.09	19	4.50	83	19.67	5.9434**
	No	97	22.99	171	40.52	71	16.82	339	80.33
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.33	422	100.00
Early warning	Yes	40	9.48	56	13.27	21	4.98	117	27.73
	No	70	16.59	166	39.34	69	16.35	305	72.27	5.6551*
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.33	422	100.00
Clean water	Yes	101	23.93	166	39.34	66	15.64	333	78.91	14.9761***
	No	9	2.13	56	13.27	24	5.69	89	21.09
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.33	422	100.00
Coopmemb	Yes	73	17.30	158	37.44	66	15.64	297	70.38	1.2944
	No	37	8.77	64	15.17	24	5.69	125	29.62
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.33	422	100.00
Mktinf	Yes	73	17.30	177	41.94	73	17.30	323	76.54
	No	37	8.77	45	10.66	17	4.03	99	23.46	8.6492**
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.33	422	100.00
SoilFertstatus	Yes	103	24.41	193	45.73	71	16.82	367	86.97	9.4985***
	No	7	1.66	29	6.87	19	4.50	55	13.03
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.33	422	100.00
Saving	Yes	67	15.88	156	36.97	66	15.64	289	68.48	4.2331
	No	43	10.19	66	15.64	24	5.69	133	31.52
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.33	422	100.00
Member of SI	Yes	100	23.70	201	47.63	84	19.91	385	91.23	0.6438
	No	10	2.37	21	4.98	6	1.42	37	8.77
	Total	110	26.07	222	52.61	90	21.32	422	100

Table

Continuous variables
	Low		Medium		High		All sample		F-value
Variable	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
EDULevel	3.48	3.13	4.05	3.47	4.12	3.58	3.92	3.58	1.91
Dependency ratio	52.08	99.23	40.9	70.3	40.04	54.33	43.65	76.1	1.36
Total income	60570.7	66441.6	88446.9	83358.2	107515.7	99230.8	85247.4	84514.3	16.23***
Farm size	2.52	1.51	3.10	1.83	3.41	2.10	3.02	1.84	12.15***
Totlivestock	4.15	2.34	4.41	2.42	4.48	2.55	4.36	2.43	1.02
Dnearestmkt	6.05	3.10	4.80	2.03	4.66	1.91	5.10	2.40	19.19***
Dhealthcenter	2.79	1.60	2.19	1.19	1.87	1.10	2.28	1.33	26.02***

***, ** and * refers to the level of significance at 1%, 5% and 10% probability level.

Source: Own computation based on survey data, 2022.

Figure 2. The study area’s households’ level of food security.

Source: Own computation based on survey data, 2022.

Table 5. Household level of nutritional status.

Level of nutrition	Dietary diversity score	Number	Percent
Low	≤3	110	26.07
Medium	>3 and ≤6	222	52.61
High	>6	90	21.33
Total	12 food groups	422	100.00

Source: Own computation based on survey data, 2022.

Table 6. Determinants of household level food security status.

Variable	Odds Ratio	Coefficient	Std. Err.	Z	P > z
SEXHH	0.5710557	−0.5602686	0.3327779	−0.96	0.336
EXPFRMING	0.9644867	−0.0361593	0.0250602	−1.39	0.164
Family size	0.1732215***	−1.753184	0.0409588	−7.41	0.000
Off/non-farm income	0.9999893	−0.0000107	0.0000102	−1.04	0.297
Farm size	0.9101636	−0.0941309	0.1537565	−0.56	0.577
Livestock	1.525031***	0.4220145	0.1888021	3.41	0.001
Freq of ext.Contact	1.353863*	0.3029623	0.21785	1.88	0.060
Training	1.61309	0.4781518	0.7122878	1.08	0.279
Access to improved wheat	1.264553	0.2347186	1.385569	0.21	0.830
Chemical Fertilizer	6.033959**	1.797403	4.940626	2.2	0.028
Access to irrigation	2.516391*	0.9228259	1.283722	1.81	0.070
Distance to the nearest mkt	0.713036***	−0.3382234	0.0875028	−2.76	0.006
Vegetation coverage	12.82751***	2.551592	9.665114	3.39	0.001
Member of social inst.	0.8777198	−0.1304278	0.1884776	−0.61	0.544
Quantity of wheat produced	0.9964366	−0.0035697	0.0047403	−0.75	0.453
Access to early warning inf.	0.4998402	−0.6934669	0.3185456	−1.09	0.277
Constant	5143.992	8.545585	10370.82	4.24	0.000
Number of obs = 422
LR chi2(16) = 283.28, Prob > chi2 < 0.0001
Log likelihood = −113.01848, Pseudo R^2= 0.5562

Source: Model output, 2022, ***, **, and * means significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% probability levels, respectively.

Table 7. Determinants of household level nutritional status.

	Result ordered logit for nutritional status
	Low		Medium		High
Variables	ME	SE	ME	SE	ME	SE
SEXHH	0.0508	0.0484	−0.0042	0.0064	−0.0466	0.0513
EDULevel	−0.0234***	0.0071	0.0048*	0.0029	0.0185***	0.0057
Dependency ratio	0.0001	0.0003	0.0000	0.0001	−0.0001	0.0002
PSNP	−0.1098**	0.0500	−0.0033	0.0205	0.1131*	0.0658
Total income	−0.0001*	0.0000	0.0001	0.0000	0.0001*	0.0000
Farm size	−0.0392**	0.0190	0.0081	0.0057	0.0311**	0.0151
Totlivesto	−0.0050	0.0109	0.0010	0.0023	0.0040	0.0086
Dnearestmkt	0.0615***	0.0162	−0.0127*	0.0073	−0.0487***	0.0129
Early warning	0.0923	0.0692	−0.0281	0.0284	−0.0642	0.0424
Memberofsocialinst	0.0361	0.0238	−0.0075	0.0063	−0.0286	0.0189
Clean water	−0.0084	0.0527	0.0019	0.0123	0.0066	0.0404
Coopmemb	−0.0146	0.0624	0.0030	0.0130	0.0116	0.0495
Mktinf	−0.1907**	0.0834	0.0395	0.0265	0.1512**	0.0664
SoilFertstatus	−0.1933***	0.0607	0.0401*	0.0239	0.1532***	0.0485
Dhealthcenter	0.0779***	0.0180	0.0162*	0.0091	−0.0618***	0.0143
Saving	0.0646	0.0401	−0.0087	0.0074	−0.0559	0.0380
Number of obs = 422
LR chi^2(16)= 105.76, Prob > chi2 < 0.0001
Log likelihood = −376.68094, Pseudo R^2= 0.1231

Source: Model output, 2022, ***, **, and * means significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% probability levels, respectively.

Table

Variable	VIF	1/VIF
YRSEXPFRMING	3.72	0.268529
Totalland	3.35	0.298321
TOTFAMILY	2.78	0.359928
earlywarning	2.4	0.415907
Totlivesto	2.37	0.422036
Dnearestmkt	2.37	0.422687
wheatproduced	1.87	0.533855
Totaloffarm	1.79	0.559181
numberofsocialinst	1.52	0.657716
Training	1.42	0.702
NumContact	1.38	0.723148
Vegetation	1.25	0.797611
Chemicalfertilizer	1.13	0.884197
Irrigation	1.1	0.908415
Improvedwh ∼ t	1.09	0.914015
SEXHH	1.07	0.937093
Mean VIF	1.91