Review on the influence of water quality on livestock production in the era of climate change: perspectives from dryland regions

Figures & data

Figure 1. An approach to assess the impact of climate change on water quantity and quality, as well as agricultural production systems (Cai et al., 2015; Hardelin & Lankoski, 2015).

Table 1. Effects of saline drinking water on various types of livestock.

Livestock	No adverse effects on animals expected	Animals may have initial reluctance to drink or there may be some diarrhea, but the stock should adapt without loss of production	Loss of production and a decline in animal condition and health would be expected. Stock may tolerate these levels for short periods if introduced gradually
species	EC in μS/cm	EC in μS/cm	EC in μS/cm
Poultry	0–3100	3100–4700	4700–6300
Dairy cattle	0–3900	3900–6300	6300–10,900
Beef cattle	0–6300	6300–7800	7800–15,600
Horses	0–6300	6300–9400	9400–10,900
Pigs	0–6300	6300–9400	9400–12,500
Sheep	0–7800	7000–15,600	15,600–20,300

Adapted from Curran (2014).

Table 2. Total soluble salts in water for beef cattle.

Quality	Total dissolved solids (ppm)
Excellent	0–1000
Good	1000–2,000
Fair	2000–4,000
Poor	4000–6000
Limit	10,000

Adapted from Boyles et al. (1988).

Table 3. Tolerance of different livestock species to salty drinking water.

Species	Total salt in drinking water (%)
Camel	5.5
Goat	1.5
Sheep	1.3–2.0
Cow	1.0–1.5
Donkey	1.0
Horse	0.9
Pig	0.9

Adapted from Golher et al. (2021).

Table 4. Guidelines for the use of saline water in dairy livestock.

Total dissolved solids (ppm)	Suggestion effects
Less than 1000	There is no significant impact on livestock
1000–2999	Although it should not affect health or performance, it may induce brief mild diarrhea
3000–4999	Generally, usually pleasant, it may produce diarrhea, especially when first consumed
5000–6999	Adult ruminants can be employed with moderate safety; pregnant animals and calves should be avoided
7000–10,000	Pregnant, nursing, stressed, or young animals should be avoided if at all possible.
More than 10,000	Not safe; should not be used under any circumstances.

Source: Schroeder (2015).

Cai, X., Zhang, X., Noël, P. H., & Shafiee-Jood, M. (2015). Impacts of climate change on agricultural water management: a review. WIREs Water, 2(5), 439–455. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1089

 Google Scholar

Hardelin, J., & Lankoski, J. (2015). Climate change, water and agriculture: Challenges and adaptation strategies. EuroChoices, 14(2), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12085

 Google Scholar

Curran, G. (2014, April 4). Water for livestock: interpreting water quality tests. Primefact. https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/livestock/livestock-water-quality.

 Google Scholar

Boyles, S., Fisher, G., Wohlgemuth, K., & Lundstrom, D. (1988). Livestock and water. NDSU Extension Service- North Dakota State University (USA).

 Google Scholar

Golher, D. M., Patel, B. H. M., Bhoite, S. H., Syed, M. I., Panchbhai, G. J., & Thirumurugan, P. (2021). Factors influencing water intake in dairy cows: a review. International Journal of Biometeorology, 65(4), 617–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-020-02038-0

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Schroeder, J. W. (2015). Water needs and quality guidelines for dairy cattle. NDSU Extension Service. (AS1369, Reviewed July 2015). https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/livestock/water-needs-and-quality-guidelines-for-dairy-cattle

 Google Scholar