Identification of electric vehicle adoption and production factors based on an ecosystem perspective in Indonesia

Figures & data

Table 1. Grouping of subsystems in the EV ecosystem.

Subsystem	Terminology/Reference	Role	Interest
Users/Adopters	ICEV users (Setiawan et al., 2022), consumer (Brozynski & Leibowicz, 2022); EV purchaser (Zolfagharian et al., 2020)	The users of ICEVs are being specifically targeted and influenced to transition from using ICEVs to EVs.	The users intend to adopt EVs based on their perceived appeal, including technology performance, affordability, operation costs, and ease of charging.
EV Manufacturers	EV manufacturers, car manufacturers (Bakker et al., 2014), automotive companies (Setiawan et al., 2022)	The EV manufacturers produce EVs in response to potential users’ demand and purchasing capacity.	To ensure the long-term viability of their operations, makers of EVs and ICEVs must develop a comprehensive and equitable approach.
Charging Infrastructure Providers	Charging station providers (Setiawan et al., 2022), infrastructure firms (Brozynski & Leibowicz, 2022)	The charging infrastructure providers offer services to facilitate the continued mobility of electric vehicles.	Government support is crucial for the substantial investment required in charging infrastructure.
Government	Government (Setiawan et al., 2022); national and local governments (Bakker et al., 2014); policy maker (Brozynski & Leibowicz, 2022)	The government facilitates the implementation of EV programs through various policies, encompassing fiscal and nonfiscal measures.	The government drives the ICEV to EV transition to mitigate emissions and minimize fuel consumption effectively.

Figure 1. The EV ecosystem and the subsystems.

Figure 2. The conceptual relation model of the EV ecosystem.

Figure 3. Delphi method.

Table 2. Linkert scale for EV adoption factor assessment.

Linkert Scale Value	Intensity Matters/Influences EV Adoption
1	Not Important/No Effect
2	Less Important/Less Influential
3	Quite Important/Influential Enough
4	Important/Influential
5	Very Important/Very Influential

Table 3. Category of factors and subfactors listed in questionnaire from subsystem of user/adopter.

1. Subsystem of User/Adopter
Category	Factor	Subfactor & Code		References
Drivers	Technical benefits for users	Comfortable and safe driving	(1)	Sanguesa et al. (2021); Novizayanti et al. (2021)
		Easy maintenance	(2)	Novizayanti et al. (2021)
	Economic benefits for Users related to operational costs	Low charging costs	(3)	Bhosale et al. (2022); Hagman et al. (2016)
		Low maintenance costs	(4)	Bhosale et al. (2022); Hagman et al. (2016)
	Economic benefits related to fiscal incentives for users	Purchase price incentives	(5)	Dong and Zheng (2022); Jung et al. (2021); Kemenperin (2023)
		Value-added tax (VAT) incentives	(6)	Kemenkeu (2023)
		Sales tax on luxury goods incentives	(7)	Deuten et al. (2020); Llopis-Albert et al. (2021)
		Title transfer tax incentives	(8)	Novizayanti et al. (2021); GOJ (2021)
		Yearly tax incentives	(9)	Kemenkeu (2023)
		Night electricity rate incentives	(10)	Wang et al. (2019); Novizayanti et al. (2021)
	Benefits of nonfiscal policies for users	Excluded from odd-even policy	(11)	Novizayanti et al. (2021); Lu et al. (2022)
	Environmental benefits for users	Eco-friendly vehicles	(12)	Jung et al. (2021); Tarei et al. (2021); Kumar and Alok (2020)
	Social benefits for users	Prestige	(13)*
	Long-term economic opportunities for users	The lower total cost of ownership (TCO)	(14)	Bhosale et al. (2022); Tarei et al. (2021); Kumar and Alok (2020)
		EV prices are getting more affordable.	(15)	BloombergNEF (2021)
Barriers	Technical barriers for users	Battery range anxiety	(16)	Novizayanti et al. (2021); Tarei et al. (2021); Kongklaew et al. (2021)
		Performance anxiety	(17)	Zolfagharian et al. (2020); Deuten et al. (2020); Abbasi et al. (2021)
		Safety anxiety	(18)	Deuten et al. (2020); Tarei et al. (2021); Huang et al. (2022); Abbasi et al. (2021)
		Maintenance anxiety	(19)*
		Lack of model availability	(20)	Novizayanti et al. (2021)
	Economic barriers for users	EV and ICEV price difference	(21)	Novizayanti et al. (2021); Hu et al. (2020); Tarei et al. (2021); Llopis-Albert et al. (2021); Bitencourt et al. (2021)
		GDP per capita	(22)*
	Charging infrastructure barriers for users	Lack of charging stations	(23)	Jung et al. (2021); Hu et al. (2020); Liang et al. (2022); Tarei et al. (2021); Broadbent et al. (2021)
		Charging time constraints	(24)	Secinaro et al. (2020); Liang et al. (2022)
		Charging cost variations	(25)*
	Technical risk for users	Performance degradation	(26)*
	Economic risks for users	Re-sale anxiety	(27)	Tarei et al. (2021); Kongklaew et al. (2021)

Noted: The number of subfactors denoted by an asterisk (*) represents a newly discovered subfactor from an expert interview.

Table 4. Category of factors and subfactors listed in questionnaire from subsystem of EV manufacturers.

2. Subsystem of EV Manufacturers
Category	Factor	Subfactor & Code		Reference
Drivers	Economic benefits for EV manufacturers	Tax holiday	(28)	Kemenkeu (2020)
		Import tax exemption for Incompletely Knocked Down (IKD)	(29)	Kemenkeu (2022)
		Purchase price incentives	(30)	Jenn et al. (2018); Kumar and Alok (2020); Secinaro et al. (2020); Kemenperin (2023)
		Increased sales of domestically produced EVs	(31)*
	Environmental benefits for EV manufacturers	Contribute to becoming a green industry	(32)*
	Social benefits for EV manufacturers	Improved brand image	(33)*
	Long-term opportunities for EV Manufacturers	Increased potential demand as EV prices become more affordable	(34)	BloombergNEF (2021)
		High potential demand because car ownership is still low	(35)	Kemenperin (2022)
		Stock availability of EVs with various variants	(36)*
Barriers	Technical barriers for EV manufacturers	Limited production capability	(37)*
		Dependence on the import of raw materials and critical components	(38)	Maghfiroh et al. (2021)
		Lack of industry readiness level	(39)	Maghfiroh et al. (2021)
	The competitive risk with ICEV manufacturing	The ICEV industry’s contribution to GDP is still high	(40)*
		The ICEV industry absorbs a lot of labor.	(41)*
		No obligation to produce EVs	(42)*

Note: The number of subfactors denoted by an asterisk (*) represents a newly discovered subfactor from an expert interview.

Table 5. Category of factors and subfactors listed in questionnaire from subsystem of charging infrastructure provider.

3. Subsystem of Charging Infrastructure Provider
Category	Factor	Subfactor & Code		References
Drivers	Economic benefits for charging station providers	Simplification of charging station business model	(43)	Huang et al. (2022); Kongklaew et al. (2021); KemenESDM (2023)
		The initial market of charging station policy	(44)	KemenESDM (2023)
	Benefits for electrical companies	Absorption of oversupplied electricity supply	(45)*
	Long-term opportunities for charging station providers	Charging station business will be more profitable	(46)*
Barriers	Operational barriers for charging infrastructure providers	EVCS business is not yet profitable	(47)*
		Limited power supply	(48)	Tarei et al. (2021)
	Technical barriers to charging infrastructure providers	Charging station safety risks	(49)*

Noted: The number of subfactors denoted by an asterisk (*) represents a newly discovered subfactor from an expert interview.

Table 6. Category of factors and subfactors listed in questionnaire from subsystem of government.

4. Subsystem of Government
Category	Factor	Subfactor & Code		References
Drivers	Economic benefits	Reduced imported fuel	(50)	GOI (2019)
	Environmental benefits	Reduced emissions from the transportation sector	(51)	Lopez-Arboleda et al. (2021); GOI (2019)
	New industry opportunities	The growing EV component supplier industry	(52)	Lopez-Arboleda et al. (2021); GOI (2019)
	New policy implementation opportunities	Obligation to produce EVs	(53)*
		Toll tariff exemption or reduction	(54)*
Barriers	Policy barriers	Limitations of EV purchase incentives	(55)	Brozynski & Leibowicz (2022)
		Lack of socialization of the importance of EV	(56)	Tarei et al. (2021); Kumar and Alok (2020)
	ICEV industry sustainability risks	EV as a technological disruption	(57)*
	Local startup EV industry sustainability risks	Local EV startup industry outcompetes	(58)*

Noted: The number of subfactors denoted by an asterisk (*) represents a newly discovered subfactor from an expert interview.

Table 7. Identification results of EV adoption factors according to the expert panel.

Category	Factor	Subfactor & Code		Geomean Value	Result
Subsystem of User/Adopter
Drivers	Technical benefits for users	Comfortable and safe driving	(1)	4,54	Accepted
		Easy maintenance	(2)	4,57	Accepted
	Economic benefits for Users related to operational costs	Low charging costs	(3)	4,17	Accepted
		Low maintenance costs	(4)	4,68	Accepted
	Economic benefits for users related to fiscal incentives	Purchase price incentives	(5)	3,94	Accepted
		Value-added tax (VAT) incentives	(6)	4,36	Accepted
		Sales tax on luxury goods incentives	(7)	4,17	Accepted
		Title transfer tax incentives	(8)	4,36	Accepted
		Yearly tax incentives	(9)	4,46	Accepted
		Night electricity rate incentives	(10)	4,47	Accepted
	Benefits of nonfiscal policies for users	Excluded from odd-even policy	(11)	4,78	Accepted
	Environmental benefits for users	Eco-friendly vehicles	(12)	4,78	Accepted
	Social benefits for users	Prestige	(13)*	3,30	Removed
	Long-term economic opportunities for users	The lower total cost of ownership (TCO)	(14)	4,25	Accepted
		EV prices are getting more affordable.	(15)	4,47	Accepted
Barriers	Technical barriers for users	Battery range anxiety	(16)	3,19	Removed
		Performance anxiety	(17)	2,31	Removed
		Safety anxiety	(18)	2,52	Removed
		Maintenance anxiety	(19)*	2,78	Removed
		Lack of model availability	(20)	2,96	Removed
	Economic barriers for users	EV and ICEV price difference	(21)	4,06	Accepted
		GDP per capita	(22)*	3,38	Removed
	Charging infrastructure barriers for users	Lack of charging stations	(23)	3,65	Accepted
		Charging time constraints	(24)	3,27	Removed
		Charging cost variations	(25)*	2,68	Removed
	Technical risk for users	Performance degradation	(26)*	2,38	Removed
	Economic risks for users	Re-sale anxiety	(27)	3,17	Removed
Subsystem of EV Manufacturers
Drivers	Economic benefits for EV manufacturers	Tax holiday	(28)	4,68	Accepted
		Import tax exemption for Incompletely Knocked Down (IKD)	(29)	4,24	Accepted
		Purchase price incentives	(30)	4,47	Accepted
		Increased sales of domestically produced EVs	(31)*	4,37	Accepted
	Environmental benefits for EV manufacturers	Contribute to becoming a green industry	(32)*	4,57	Accepted
	Social benefits for EV manufacturers	Improved brand image	(33)*	4,25	Accepted
	Long-term opportunities for EV Manufacturers	Increased potential demand as EV prices become more affordable	(34)	4,47	Accepted
		High potential demand because car ownership is still low	(35)	4,05	Accepted
		Stock availability of EVs with various variants	(36)*	4,36	Accepted
Barriers	Technical barriers for EV manufacturers	Limited production capability	(37)*	3,36	Removed
		Dependence on the import of raw materials and critical components	(38)	3,96	Accepted
		Lack of industry readiness level	(39)	4,04	Accepted
	The competitive risk with ICEV manufacturing	The ICEV industry’s contribution to GDP is still high	(40)*	3,48	Accepted
		The ICEV industry absorbs a lot of labor.	(41)*	4,22	Accepted
		No obligation to produce EVs	(42)*	4,68	Accepted
Subsystem of Charging Infrastructure Providers
Drivers	Economic benefits for charging station providers	Simplification of charging station business model	(43)	4,57	Accepted
		The initial market of charging station policy	(44)	3,96	Accepted
	Benefits for electrical companies	Absorption of oversupplied electricity supply	(45)*	4,22	Accepted
	Long-term opportunities for charging station providers	Charging station business will be more profitable	(46)*	4,47	Accepted
Barriers	Operational barriers for charging infrastructure providers	EVCS business is not yet profitable	(47)*	3,68	Accepted
		Limited power supply	(48)	2,93	Removed
	Technical barriers to charging infrastructure providers	Charging station safety risks	(49)*	2,79	Removed
Subsystem of Government
Drivers	Economic benefits	Reduced imported fuel	(50)	4,07	Accepted
	Environmental benefits	Reduced emissions from the transportation sector	(51)	4,16	Accepted
	New industry opportunities	The growing EV component supplier industry	(52)	4,57	Accepted
	New policy implementation opportunities	Obligation to produce EVs	(53)*	4,35	Accepted
		Toll tariff exemption or reduction	(54)*	4,17	Accepted
Barriers	Policy barriers	Limitations of EV purchase incentives	(55)	4,25	Accepted
		Lack of socialization of the importance of EV	(56)	4,27	Accepted
	ICEV industry sustainability risks	EV as a technological disruption	(57)*	3,52	Accepted
	Local startup EV industry sustainability risks	Local EV startup industry outcompetes	(58)*	3,66	Accepted

Table 8. Reliability test.

Reference Value	Cronbach’s Alpha Value	Item Number	Result
0,7	0,884	58	Reliable

Table 9. Resume of EV adoption factors based on subsystem of users.

Drivers	Barriers
Economic Benefits	Economic Costs
Low operating cost	EV-ICEV price difference
Purchase incentives	Infrastructure Barriers
Yearly tax incentives	Lack of charging stations
Economic Opportunities
Low total cost of ownership
EV prices are more affordable.
Operational Benefits
Comfortable and easy maintenance
Excluded from odd-even policy
Environmental Benefits
Eco-friendly vehicle

Table 10. Resume of EV production factors based on subsystem of EV manufacturers.

Drivers	Barriers
Economic Benefits	Operational Barriers
Tax holiday	Dependence on the import of raw materials and critical components
Import tax exemption for Incompletely Knocked Down
Increased sales of domestically produced EVs
Economic Opportunities	Economic Risks
Increased sales of EV prices have become more affordable, and various variants are available.	The competitive risk with ICEV manufacturers
Environmental Benefits
Contribute to becoming a green industry.
Social Benefits
Improved brand image

Table 11. Resume of EV adoption factors based on subsystem of charging infrastructure providers.

Drivers	Barriers
Economic Benefits	Costs
Simplification of charging station business model	EVCS business is not yet profitable
The initial market of charging station policy
Economic Opportunities
The charging station business will be more profitable.

Table 12. Resume of EV production factors based on subsystem of government.

Drivers	Barriers
Economic Benefits	Economic Risks
Reduced imported fuel	ICEV industry sustainability risks
The growing EV component supplier industry	Local startup EV industry sustainability risks
Environmental Benefits
Reduced emissions from the transportation sector
Policy Opportunities	Policy Barriers
New policy implementation opportunities	Limitations of EV-related incentives budget
	Lack of socialization of the importance of EV

Setiawan, A. D., Zahari, T. N., Purba, F. J., Moeis, A. O., & Hidayatno, A. (2022). Investigating policies on increasing the adoption of electric vehicles in Indonesia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 380, 135097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135097

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Brozynski, M. T., & Leibowicz, B. D. (2022). A multi-level optimization model of infrastructure-dependent technology adoption: Overcoming the chicken-and-egg problem. European Journal of Operational Research, 300(2), 755–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2021.10.026

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zolfagharian, M., Walrave, B., Romme, A. G. L., & Raven, R. (2020). Toward the dynamic modeling of transition problems: The case of electric mobility. Sustainability, 13(1), 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010038

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bakker, S., Maat, K., & Van Wee, B. (2014). Stakeholders interests, expectations, and strategies regarding the development and implementation of electric vehicles: The case of the Netherlands. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 66, 52–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2014.04.018

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sanguesa, J. A., Torres-Sanz, V., Garrido, P., Martinez, F. J., & Marquez-Barja, J. M. (2021). A review on electric vehicles: Technologies and challenges. Smart Cities, 4(1), 372–404. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities4010022

 Google Scholar

Novizayanti, D., Prasetio, E. A., Siallagan, M., & Santosa, S. P. (2021). Agent-based modeling framework for electric vehicle adoption transition in Indonesia. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 12(2), 73. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12020073

 Google Scholar

Bhosale, A. P., Sharma, S., & Mastud, S. A. (2022). Characterizing the economic competitiveness of battery electric vehicles in India. Asian Transport Studies, 8, 100069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eastsj.2022.100069

 Google Scholar

Hagman, J., Ritzén, S., Stier, J. J., & Susilo, Y. (2016). Total cost of ownership and its potential implications for battery electric vehicle diffusion. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 18, 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2016.01.003

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dong, F., & Zheng, L. (2022). The impact of market-incentive environmental regulation on the development of the new energy vehicle industry: A quasi-natural experiment based on China’s dual-credit policy. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 29(4), 5863–5880. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16036-1

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Jung, J., Yeo, S., Lee, Y., Moon, S., & Lee, D.-J. (2021). Factors affecting consumers’ preferences for electric vehicle: A Korean case. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 41, 100666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2021.100666

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kemenperin. (2023). Peraturan Menteri Perindustrian Nomor 6 Tahun 2023 tentang Pedoman Pemberian Bantuan Pemerintah untuk Pembelian Kendaraan Bermotor Listrik Berbasis Baterai Roda Dua [Minister of Industry Regulation No. 6 of 2023 on Guidelines for Providing Government Assistance for the Purchase of Electric Motor Vehicles Based on Two-Wheeled Batteries]. Ministry of Industry of the Republic of Indonesia. https://jdih.kemenperin.go.id/site/baca_peraturan/2847

 Google Scholar

Kemenkeu. (2023). Peraturan Menteri Keuangan Nomor 38 Tahun 2023 tentang Pajak Pertambahan Nilai atas Penyerahan Kendaraan Bermotor Listrik Berbasis Baterai Roda Empat Tertentu dan Kendaraan Bermotor Listrik Berbasis Baterai Bus Tertentu yang Ditanggung Pemerintah Tahun Anggaran 2023 [Regulation of the Minister of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia No. 38 of 2023 on Value Added Tax on the Delivery of Certain Four-Wheeled Battery-Based Electric Motor Vehicles and Certain Bus Battery-Based Electric Motor Vehicles Borne by the Government]. Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia. https://jdih.kemenkeu.go.id/download/4b0582e7-2280-43bf-8197-4c2fa426d853/2023pmkeuangan038.pdf

 Google Scholar

Deuten, S., Gómez Vilchez, J. J., & Thiel, C. (2020). Analysis and testing of electric car incentive scenarios in the Netherlands and Norway. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 151, 119847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119847

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Llopis-Albert, C., Palacios-Marqués, D., & Simón-Moya, V. (2021). Fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) applied to the adaptation of the automobile industry to meet the emission standards of climate change policies via the deployment of electric vehicles (EVs). Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 169, 120843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120843

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

GOJ. (2021). Peraturan Gubernur Provinsi Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta Nomor 41 Tahun 2021 tentang Penghitungan Dasar Pengenaan Pajak Kendaraan Bermotor Dan Bea Balik Nama Kendaraan Bermotor Pembuatan Sebelum Tahun 2021 [Governor of Jakarta Regulation No. 41 of 2021. Basic Calculation of Motor Vehicle Tax and Motor Vehicle Name Return Duty Before ]. https://jdih.jakarta.go.id/index.php/dokumen/detail/5860/peraturan-gubernur-nomor-41-tahun-2021-tentang-penghitungan-dasar-pengenaan-pajak-kendaraan-bermotor-dan-bea-balik-nama-kendaraan-bermotor-pembuatan-sebelum-tahun-2021

 Google Scholar

Wang, H., Zhao, D., Meng, Q., Ong, G. P., & Lee, D.-H. (2019). A four-step method for electric-vehicle charging facility deployment in a dense city: An empirical study in Singapore. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 119, 224–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.11.012

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lu, T., Yao, E., Jin, F., & Yang, Y. (2022). Analysis of incentive policies for electric vehicle adoptions after the abolishment of purchase subsidy policy. Energy, 239, 122136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122136

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tarei, P. K., Chand, P., & Gupta, H. (2021). Barriers to the adoption of electric vehicles: Evidence from India. Journal of Cleaner Production, 291, 125847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.125847

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kumar, R. R., & Alok, K. (2020). Adoption of electric vehicle: A literature review and prospects for sustainability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 253, 119911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119911

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

BloombergNEF. (2021). The EV price gap narrows. https://about.bnef.com/blog/the-ev-price-gap-narrows/

 Google Scholar

Kongklaew, C., Phoungthong, K., Prabpayak, C., Chowdhury, M. S., Khan, I., Yuangyai, N., Yuangyai, C., & Techato, K. (2021). Barriers to electric vehicle adoption in Thailand. Sustainability, 13(22), 12839. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212839

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Abbasi, H., Johl, S., Shaari, Z., Moughal, W., Mazhar, M., Musarat, M., Rafiq, W., Farooqi, A., & Borovkov, A. (2021). Consumer motivation by using unified theory of acceptance and use of technology towards electric vehicles. Sustainability, 13(21), 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112177

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Huang, X., Lin, Y., Lim, M. K., Zhou, F., Ding, R., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Evolutionary dynamics of promoting electric vehicle-charging infrastructure based on public–private partnership cooperation. Energy, 239, 122281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122281

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hu, Y., Wang, Z., & Li, X. (2020). Impact of policies on electric vehicle diffusion: An evolutionary game of small world network analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production, 265, 121703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121703

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bitencourt, L., Abud, T., Santos, R., & Borba, B. (2021). Bass diffusion model adaptation considering public policies to improve electric vehicle sales—A brazilian case study. Energies, 14(17), 5435. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175435

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Liang, Y., Wang, H., & Zhao, X. (2022). Analysis of factors affecting economic operation of electric vehicle charging station based on DEMATEL-ISM. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 163, 107818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2021.107818

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Broadbent, G. H., Wiedmann, T. O., & Metternicht, G. I. (2021). Electric vehicle uptake: Understanding the print media’s role in changing attitudes and perceptions. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 12(4), 174. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040174

 Google Scholar

Secinaro, S., Brescia, V., Calandra, D., & Biancone, P. (2020). Employing bibliometric analysis to identify suitable business models for electric cars. Journal of Cleaner Production, 264, 121503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121503

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kemenkeu. (2020). Peraturan Menteri Keuangan Nomor 130/PMK.010/2020 Tahun 2020 tentang Pemberian Fasilitas Pengurangan Pajak Penghasilan Badan [Ministry of Finance Regulation No. 130 of 2020. Provision of Corporate Income Tax Reduction Facility]. Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia. https://jdih.kemenkeu.go.id/in/dokumen/peraturan/c5062f8a-8e23-4ec9-eff2-08d86bf69e99

 Google Scholar

Kemenkeu. (2022). Perubahaan Keempat Atas Peraturan Menteri Keuangan Nomor 6/PMK.010/2017 tentang Penetapan Sistem Klasifikasi Barang dan Pembebanan Tarif Bea Masuk atas Barang Impor [Regulation of the Minister of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia No. 13/PMK.010/2022 on the Establishment of a Goods Classification System and the Imposition of Import Duty Tariffs on Imported Goods]. Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia. https://jdih.kemenkeu.go.id/in/dokumen/peraturan/76707d34-2322-4fa1-5085-08d9f8306e4a

 Google Scholar

Jenn, A., Springel, K., & Gopal, A. R. (2018). Effectiveness of electric vehicle incentives in the United States. Energy Policy, 119, 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.065

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kemenperin. (2022). Peraturan Menteri Perindustrian Nomor 6 Tahun 2022 Tentang Spesifikasi, Peta Jalan Pengembangan, dan Ketentuan Penghitungan Nilai Tingkat Komponen dalam Negeri Kendaraan Bermotor Listrik Berbasis Baterai (battery Electric Vehicle) [Minister of Industry of the Republic of Indonesia Regulation No. 6 of 2022 on Specifications, Development Roadmap, and Conditions for Calculating Domestic Component Level Values of Battery Electric Vehicles]. Ministry of Industry of the Republic of Indonesia. https://jdih.kemenperin.go.id/site/template3/2771

 Google Scholar

Maghfiroh, M. F. N., Pandyaswargo, A. H., & Onoda, H. (2021). Current readiness status of electric vehicles in Indonesia: Multistakeholder perceptions. Sustainability, 13(23), 13177. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313177

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

KemenESDM. (2023). Peraturan Menteri Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral Nomor 1 Tahun 2023 tentang Penyediaan Infrastruktur Pengisian Listrik Untuk Kendaraan Bermotor Listrik Bebasis Baterai [Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources Regulation No. 1 of 2023. On Provision of Electric Charging Infrastructure for Battery-Based Electric Motor Vehicles]. Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. https://jdih.esdm.go.id/storage/document/Permen%20ESDM%20Nomor%201%20Tahun%202023.pdf

 Google Scholar

GOI. (2019). Peraturan Presiden Nomor 55 Tahun 2019 Tentang Percepatan Program Kendaraan Bermotor Listrik Berbasis Baterai (Battery Electric Vehicle) untuk Transportasi Jalan [Presidential Regulation Number 55 of 2019 on The Acceleration of The Battery Electric Vehicle Program for Road Transportation. Republik Indonesia]. Government of Indonesia.

 Google Scholar

Lopez-Arboleda, E., Sarmiento, A. T., & Cardenas, L. M. (2021). Understanding synergies between electric-vehicle market dynamics and sustainability: Case study of Colombia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 321, 128834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128834

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Data availability statement

The data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.