“Educating children to follow the voice of their conscience” – a comparative study of the Dutch educationalists Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm (1875–1951) and Martinus Jan Langeveld (1905–1989) within the context of early twentieth-century Europe

ABSTRACT

Two of the greatest Dutch educationalists of the twentieth century, Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm (1875–1951) and Martinus Jan Langeveld (1905–1989), believed that education meant, above all, the formation of a conscience. They developed their ideas in a time full of developments within Europe: the rise of fascism, two world wars, and pioneering theories on human development by Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), among others. Kohnstamm’s and Langeveld’s educational theories were also influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, by optimistic ideas about the spontaneous development of the child and the unique personality of humankind, as expressed in movements such as New Education, New Psychology, and the philosophy of Henri Bergson (1859–1941). This article aims to compare these two Dutch educationalists on conscience formation to contextualise their differences and similarities and subsequently understand them within European developments, such as New Psychology, and specifically the Dutch context of the twentieth century.

KEYWORDS:

• Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm
• Martinus Jan Langeveld
• conscience formation
• ethical movement
• New Education movement
• New Psychology

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

¹ John Exalto, “Kohnstamm, Philipp Abraham (1875–1951)”, in Bloomsbury Encyclopaedia of Philosophers (London: Bloomsbury, 2023); John Exalto, Leendert Groenendijk, and Siebren Miedema, “Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm (1875–1951): Opvoedingswetenschap op filosofische en empirische grondslag”, in Vier grondleggers van de pedagogiek, ed. Vittorio Busato, Mineke Van Essen, and Willem Koops (Amsterdam: Prometheus/Bert Bakker, 2015), 29–95; and Bas Levering, “Praktische wetenschap als levenslange ambitie. Martinus Jan Langeveld (1905–1989)”, in Vier grondleggers van de pedagogiek, 97–166.

² Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording. Schets eener christelijke opvoedkunde, vol. 2 of Schepper en schepping. Een stelsel van personalistische wijsbegeerte op bijbelschen grondslag (Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink, 1929), 58–9; and Langeveld, Beknopte Theoretische Pedagogiek (Groningen: Wolters, 1945), 34–6; 65–6.

³ See a previous publication of the authors, Marloes Hoencamp, John Exalto, Abraham de Muynck, and Doret de Ruyter, “Personalism: An Elucidation of the Philosophical Foundations of the Educational Theory of Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm (1875–1951)”, Journal of Philosophy & History of Education 71, no. 1 (2022): 1–22.

⁴ Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm, Bijbel en Jeugd (Haarlem: Bohn, 1923), 31; and Langeveld, Beknopte Theoretische Pedagogiek, 54–62.

⁵ James Arthur, “Christianity and the Character Education Movement 1897–1914”, History of Education 48, no. 1 (2019), doi: 10.1080/0046760X.2018.1506049; Nelleke Bakker, Kind en karakter. Nederlandse pedagogen over opvoeding in het gezin 1845–1925 (Amsterdam: Spinhuis, 1995); and Jürgen Oelkers, “Break and Continuity: Observations on the Modernization Effects and Traditionalization”, Paedagogica Historica 31, no. 3 (1995), doi: 10.1080/00309230.1995.11864690.

⁶ See note 2 above. Unless otherwise stated, the first editions of both works are used for this study.

⁷ For the purposes of this article, Kant’s ideas on conscience are briefly mentioned in the subsequent sentences. For a more complete understanding, the reader may turn to one of the references given in the notes. This also applies to the discussions of Darwin’s and Freud’s ideas on conscience.

⁸ John Cottingham, “Conscience: What is its History and Does it Have a Future?”, History of European Ideas 45, no. 3 (2019), doi: 10.1080/01916599.2018.1534446; Perry L. Glanzer, “The Rise and Fall of America’s Conscience: The Disappearance of the Conscience From Collegiate Moral Education”, Journal of Beliefs & Values 42, no. 4 (2021), doi: 10.1080/13,617,672.2021.1875312 l; and Anders Schinkel, “Conscience and Conscientious Objections” (PhD diss., Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 2007), section 6.3.

⁹ Schinkel, “Conscience and Conscientious Objections”, 303.

¹⁰ Cottingham, “Conscience”; Ernst Mulder, “Patterns, Principles, and Profession: The Early Decades of Educational Science in the Netherlands”, Paedagogica Historica 34, no. 1 (1998), doi: 10.1080/00309230.1998.11434886; and Schinkel, “Conscience and Conscientious Objections”, sections 6.4 and 6.5.

¹¹ Sebastian Engelmann, “Das gangbare Kleingeld moralpädagogischer Unterweisung. Pädagogische Wege zur Toleranz in den Schriften der Ethischen Bewegung”, Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Pädagogik 98 (2022), 58–72; and Susannah Wright, “‘There is Something Universal in Our Movement Which Appeals Not Only to One Country, but to All’: International Communication and Moral Education 1892–1914”, History of Education 37, no. 6 (2008), doi: 10.1080/00467600802159064.

¹² Ibid.

¹³ Arthur, “Christianity”; Wright, “There is Something Universal”.

¹⁴ Richard Aldrich, “The New Education and the Institute of Education, University of London, 1919–1945”, Paedagogica Historica 45, no. 4–5 (2009), doi: 10.1080/00309230903100882.

¹⁵ Lauri Luoto, “The Social Nature of New Education: An Affiliation Network Analysis of the Movement’s Evolution, 1875–1935”, Paedagogica Historica 59, no. 1 (2023), doi: 10.1080/00309230.2022.2095874; and Oelkers, “Break and Continuity”.

¹⁶ Aldrich, “The New Education”; Jürgen Oelkers, “Reformpädagogik vor der Reformpädagogik”, Paedagogica Historica 42, no. 1–2 (2006), doi: 10.1080/00309230600551981; and Marc Depaepe, Zum Wohl des Kindes?: Pädologie, pädagogische Psychologie und experimentelle Pädagogik in Europa und den USA, 1890–1940 (Weinheim: Deutscher Studien Verlag, 1993).

¹⁷ Arie de Wilde, De persoon. Over de grondslagen van het personalistisch denken (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1951), 77; Oelkers, “Break and Continuity”; and Peter Selten, “Youth Movements as Agencies of Cultural Transmission. The Emergence of Youth Movements at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century”, Paedagogica Historica, 32, supp. 1 (1996), doi: 10.1080/00309230.1996.11434868.

¹⁸ Christian Roith, “Educational Theory and Practice in Post-Revolutionary Times: The European Academic Debate on the Experimental Schools in Hamburg (1919–1933) in the 1930s and 1970s”, Paedagogica Historica 50, no. 5 (2014), doi: 10.1080/00309230.2014.927891; and Bakker, Kind en karakter; Nelleke Bakker, “The Meaning of Fear. Emotional Standards for Children in the Netherlands, 1850–1950: Was there a Western Transformation?”, Journal of Social History 34, no. 2 (2000): 369–91.

¹⁹ De Wilde, De persoon, chap. 16; and Oelkers, “Break and Continuity”.

²⁰ Besides the New Education movement, German educational sciences were also influenced by Bergson’s philosophy. For instance, philosophers and educational scientists like Spranger and Theodor Litt (1880–1962) – who were of inspiration to Kohnstamm and Langeveld, respectively – tried to integrate Bergson’s theses into their work. De Wilde, De persoon, 224; Peter Drewek, “Educational Studies as an Academic Discipline in Germany at the Beginning of the 20^th Century”, Paedagogica Historica, 34, no. 1 (1998), doi: 10.1080/00309230.1998.11434883; and Oelkers, “Break and Continuity”.

²¹ David Baneke, “Synthetic Technocracy: Dutch Scientific Intellectuals in Science, Society and Culture, 1880–1950”, The British Journal for the History of Science 44, no. 1 (2011), doi: 10.1017/S000708741000004X.

²² De Wilde, De person; and Mulder, “Patterns, Principles, and Profession”.

²³ A notable representative of phenomenological thinking was the German philosopher and psychiatrist Karl Jaspers (1883–1969). His early publications (1910–1913) are considered as important foundational ideas within psychology and were also used for insights in educational theory. For instance, Heinz Häfner, “Descriptive Psychopathology, Phenomenology, and the Legacy of Karl Jaspers”, Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 17, no. 1 (2015), doi: 10.31887/ DCNS.2015.17.1/hhaefne. Both Kohnstamm and Langeveld, among others, used Jaspers’s insights.

²⁴ Bakker, “The meaning of fear”, 371–5; and Nelleke Bakker, “De ‘goede’ opvoeding in het gezin: over veranderende kwaliteitsnormen in de twintigste eeuw”, in Het pedagogisch quotient, ed. Alexander Minnaert, Henk Lutje Spelberg and Hilda Amsing (Houten: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum, 2009), 21–44.

²⁵ Bakker, Kind en karakter, 118–22; and compare Arthur, “Christianity”, 61.

²⁶ Bakker, “De ‘goede’ opvoeding”; and Rolf Schuursma, Jaren van opgang. Nederland 1900–1930 (Amsterdam: Balans, 2000), 298–9.

²⁷ Bakker, Kind en karakter, 233–4.

²⁸ Bakker, “The meaning of fear”, 374–8; Nelleke Bakker, “Westward Bound? Dutch Education and Cultural Transfer in the Mid-Twentieth Century”, Paedagogica Historica 50, no. 1–2 (2014), doi: 10.1080/00309230.2013.872679; and Drewek, “Educational Studies”.

²⁹ Ernst Mulder and Frieda Heyting, “The Dutch Curve: The Introduction and Reception of Intelligence Testing in the Netherlands, 1908–1940”, Journal of the History of the Behaviorial Sciences 43, no. 4 (1998), 349–66.

³⁰ Kohnstamm, “Paedagogiek”, in Scientia. Handboek voor wetenschap, kunst en godsdienst deel 1, ed. A.W. de Groot (Utrecht: Uitgeversmaatschappij W. de Haan, 1938), 209–38.

³¹ Sjoerd Karsten, De rode bovenmeester. De humanistische pedagoog en sociaaldemocratische politicus A.H. Gerhard, 1858–1948 (Utrecht: Humanistisch Historisch Centrum / Papieren Tijger, 2019).

³² Peter Selten, “The Religious Formation of Youth. Catholic Youth Movements in the Netherlands from 1900 to 1941”, Paedagogica Historica 29, no. 1 (1993): 165–87.

³³ John Exalto, “Sexual Hygiene: Dutch Reflections on the Adolescent Body in the Early Twentieth Century”, History of Education 48, no. 4 (2019), doi: 10.1080/0046760X.2019.1576235; and Vincent Stolk, Willeke Los, and Sjoerd Karsten, “Education as Cultural Mobilisation: The Great War and Its Effects on Moral Education in the Netherlands”, Paedagogica Historica 50, no. 5 (2014), doi: 10.1080/00309230.2014.911756. See also for instance the publications Bijbel en Jeugd (Kohnstamm) and Langeveld, Kind en religie (Utrecht: Bijleveld, 1956).

³⁴ Later, Foerster’s work took a remarkable turn through the convergence of moral formation and religious education, which remained strongly separated within the Ethical movement. As a result, Foerster increased in popularity among Dutch Catholics, but Protestants also made use of his work. Bakker, Kind en karakter, 88–9, 231; and Bakker, “Westward Bound”.

³⁵ Sjaak Braster, “From Holland to Hamburg: The Experimental and Community Schools of Hamburg Seen through the Eyes of Dutch Observers (1919–1933)”, Paedagogica Historica 50, no. 5 (2014), doi: 10.1080/00309230.2014.927513; see also Kohnstamm’s reports of his visits to school experiments: “Reisindrukken uit Engeland (276–83), “Reisindrukken uit Vledderveen” (284–90) and “Reisindrukken uit Hamburg”, (291–99) in Individu en gemeenschap. Verzamelde sociaal-paedagogische opstellen (’s-Gravenhage: Daamen’s uitgeversmaatschappij, 1929).

³⁶ Barbara C. De Jong, Jan Ligthart (1859–1916). Een schoolmeester-pedagoog uit de Schilderswijk (Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff, 1996), 187; and Mulder, “Patterns, Principles, and Profession”.

³⁷ See for a more complete discussion of New Education in the Netherlands and Kohnstamm’s role in it, a previous publication of the authors: Marloes Hoencamp, John Exalto, Abraham de Muynck, and Doret de Ruyter, “A Dutch Example of New Education: Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm (1875–1951) and His Ideas about the New School”, History of Education 51, no. 6 (2022), doi:10.1080/0046760X.2022.2038697.

³⁸ Bakker, “The Meaning of Fear”, 374–6.

³⁹ Freud was read but only gained influence after WWII. Bakker, “De ‘goede’ opvoeding”; Bakker, “Westward Bound”.

⁴⁰ Bakker, “The meaning of fear”, 376–9; and Leendert Groenendijk and Nelleke Bakker, “Child Rearing and the Neuroticization of Parenting: The Case of The Netherlands”, History of Education 31, no. 6 (2002), doi: 10.1080/0046760022000018392.

⁴¹ Bakker, “The meaning of fear”, 376–7. Compare Stolk, Los and Karsten, “Education as Cultural Mobilisation”.

⁴² Nelleke Bakker, “Child-Rearing Literature and the Reception of Individual Psychology in the Netherlands, 1930–1950”, Paedagogica Historica 34 (SS III) (1998): 583–602; and Bakker, “Westward Bound”.

⁴³ Exalto, “Sexual Hygiene”.

⁴⁴ Nelleke Bakker and Janneke Wubs, “A Mysterious Success: Doctor Spock and the Netherlands in the 1950s”, Paedagogica Historica 38, no. 1 (2002), doi: 10.1080/0030923020380110; and Martinus Jan Langeveld, Maatschappelijke verwildering de jeugd. Rapport betreffende het onderzoek naar de geestesgesteldheid van de massajeugd (’s-Gravenhage: Staatsuitgeverij, 1952).

⁴⁵ Bram Mellink, “Having Faith: Religious Optimism in Dutch Parochial Schools During the 1960s as a Case for Secularisation”, Paedagogica Historica 49, no. 1 (2013), doi: 10.1080/00309230.2012.744069.

⁴⁶ See note 1 above. See also for instance the studies of Bakker, “Westward Bound”; Nathan Deen, “Een halve eeuw onderwijsresearch in Nederland. Het Nutsseminarium voor Pedagogiek 1919–1969” (PhD diss., Universiteit van Amsterdam, 1969), or Mulder and Heyting, “The Dutch curve”.

⁴⁷ Hoencamp et al., “Personalism”.

⁴⁸ Bakker, “Westward Bound”; and Braster, “From Holland to Hamburg”, 626.

⁴⁹ Kohnstamm, Hoe mijn “Bijbelsch personalisme” ontstond (Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink, 1934).

⁵⁰ Hoencamp et al., “A Dutch Example”.

⁵¹ Bakker, “Westward Bound”; and Exalto, Groenendijk and Miedema, “Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm (1875–1951)”.

⁵² Jaap Bos, M.J. Langeveld. Pedagoog aan de hand van het kind (Amsterdam: Boom, 2011), 244, 352; Bas Levering, “De betekenis van M.J. Langeveld voor de naoorlogse Nederlandse pedagogiek (met het accent op de periode 1945–1960)”, Pedagogisch Tijdschrift 16, no. 3 (1991): 147–60; Levering, “Praktische wetenschap als levenslange ambitie”; A. Rang and B. Rang, “Een bekende onbekende. Over de receptie van Langevelds werk in Duitsland”, Pedagogisch Tijdschrift 16, no. 3 (1991): 178–92; J. Rispens and P.M. Schoorl, “Professionele pedagogische hulpverlening. Over de bijdrage van Langeveld aan de ontwikkeling van de klinisch-pedagogische beroepspraktijk”, Pedagogisch Tijdschrift 16, no. 3 (1991): 161–77; and Ido Weijers, “Mondige burgers. Een cultuurhistorische plaatsbepaling van de pedagogiek van M.J. Langeveld”, Pedagogisch Tijdschrift 19, no. 3 (1994): 189–206.

⁵³ Bakker, “Westward Bound”. For further discussion of Langeveld’s work, see a forthcoming publication of the authors: Marloes Hoencamp, John Exalto, Abraham de Muynck, and Doret de Ruyter, “Self-Responsible Self-Determination: The Educational Theory of Martinus Jan Langeveld (1905–1989), its Origins and Sources”, History of Education (2023) (forthcoming).

⁵⁴ Hoencamp et al., “Self-Responsible Self-Determination”; for a discussion of the relationship between (the theories of) Litt and Langeveld, see the study by Bos, M.J. Langeveld, 194–6, 242–4.

⁵⁵ Bos, M.J. Langeveld, chap. 12; Bas Levering and Max Van Manen, “Phenomenological Anthropology in the Netherlands and Flanders”, in Phenomenology World-Wide, ed. T. Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2002), 274–85.

⁵⁶ Bakker, “Westward Bound”.

⁵⁷ Bos, M.J. Langeveld, 220; Hoencamp et al., “Self-Responsible Self-Determination”; and Levering, “De Betekenis van M. J. Langeveld voor de Naoorlogse Nederlandse Pedagogiek”.

⁵⁸ Bakker, Kind en karakter, 118–22.

⁵⁹ Fitting within his personalism, Kohnstamm gave no definitions of conscience, personality and/or character formation. He considered them as related and coinciding. Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 86, 283; Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm, Staatspaedagogiek of persoonlijkheidspaedagogiek. Rede uitgesproken op maandag 3 februari 1919 (Groningen: Wolters, 1919), 19; and Kohnstamm, “Paedagogiek”, sections 5–6.

⁶⁰ Langeveld, BTP, 51–7, 62, 65; 2nd edition: 202–3.

⁶¹ Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 58, 66, 73, 79–80.

⁶² Langeveld, BTP, 153.

⁶³ Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 60–1, 182; and Kohnstamm, “Paedagogiek”, section 4.

⁶⁴ Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm, Het waarheidsprobleem. Grondleggende kritiek van het christelijk waarheidsbewustzijn, vol. 1 of Schepper en schepping. Een stelsel van personalistische wijsbegeerte op bijbelschen grondslag (Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink, 1926), 336–7; and Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 57; Kohnstamm, “Paedagogiek”, 228.

⁶⁵ Hoencamp et al., “Personalism”; Kohnstamm, Bijbel en Jeugd, 31; Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid en Idee (Haarlem: F. Bohn, 1922); and Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 520; Kohnstamm, Staatspaedagogiek of persoonlijkheidspaedagogiek.

⁶⁶ Kohnstamm, Het waarheidsprobleem, 332, 413; and Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 57–60, 520.

⁶⁷ Langeveld, BTP, 64–5, 70, 80–4.

⁶⁸ Langeveld BTP, 2nd edition, 79–80, 203.

⁶⁹ Langeveld, BTP, 54, 62.

⁷⁰ R. Bakker, De geschiedenis van het fenomenologisch denken (Utrecht: Uitgeverij Het Spectrum, 1977); and Jouwert Turkstra, “Een onderzoek naar de invloed van Waterink en Langeveld op het pedagogiek-denken in Zuid-Afrika” (PhD diss., Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1978), 110–13.

⁷¹ Cornelis P. Boele, “Noordmans, de filosofie en christelijk leiderschap” (PhD diss., Vrije Universiteit, 2013), 80.

⁷² Kohnstamm, Staatspaedagogiek of persoonlijkheidspdagogiek, 18–22; and Hoencamp et al., “Personalism”.

⁷³ On an international level it showed kinship with Social Christianity, a movement that emphasised the social impact of faith on society. Important representatives of Social Christianity are the English Christian Socialist Charles Kingsley (1819–1875) and the Social Gospel movement of American preacher Charles M. Sheldon (1857–1946), whose book “In His Steps, What Would Jesus Do?” (published in 1896 in the USA) also enjoyed fame in the Dutch circle of the Ethical Society. See Susan Wharton Gates, “Topeka to Tangier: The Impact of In His Steps on Public Administration”, International Journal of Public Administration 32, no. 1 (2009), doi: 10.1080/01900690802393618.

⁷⁴ Gijsbert Bos, Christus de gekruisigde voor en in ons. Gunning’s getuigenis van het verzoende leven (Dordrecht: J.P. van den Tol, 1981); and Otto J. De Jong, Nederlandse kerkgeschiedenis (Nijkerk: Callenbach, 1986), 361–4.

⁷⁵ M.J. Aalders, Ethisch tussen 1870 en 1920: openbaring, Schrift en ervaring bij J.J.P. Valeton Jr., P.D. Chantepie de la Saussaye en Is. van Dijk (Kampen: Kok, 1990), 17–18; Theo Hettema and Leo Mietus, Noblesse oblige. Achtergrond en actualiteit van de theologie van J.H. Gunning Jr. (Gorinchem: Ekklesia, 2005); and P. Prins, Het geweten (Delft: Meinema, 1937), chap. 5 and p. 553.

⁷⁶ Aalders, Ethisch tussen 1870 en 1920; Johannes Hermanus Gunning, “Het ethisch beginsel der theologie” and “Het ethisch karakter der waarheid I en II”, in J.H. Gunning Jr., Verzameld Werk deel 1 1856–1878, ed. L. Mietus (Zoetermeer: Boekencentrum, 2012); and Aad Schravesande, “Hilbrandt Boschma (1869–1954): Nederlands-hervormd” (PhD diss., Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2021).

⁷⁷ P.H. Esser and P. Prins, Het geweten (Kampen: Kok, 1947), 45. Moreover, the Ethical Society had influenced Dutch educational sciences earlier than Kohnstamm. Jan Gunning was the uncle of Jan Gunning Wzn (1859–1951), a contemporary of Kohnstamm and a former private lecturer in educational sciences.

⁷⁸ Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 74–5, 86, 96.

⁷⁹ See note 73 above.

⁸⁰ Wharton Gates, “Topeka to Tangier”.

⁸¹ James H. Smylie, “Sheldon’s In His Steps: Conscience And Discipleship”, Theology Today 32, no. 1 (1975): 32–45; and Wharton Gates, “Topeka to Tangier”.

⁸² Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 57–60.

⁸³ Kohnstamm, “Paedagogiek”, 228.

⁸⁴ Langeveld, BTP, 39, 51, 69, 124.

⁸⁵ Langeveld, BTP, sections 13a, 19–22.

⁸⁶ Langeveld, BTP, 64, 143–8.

⁸⁷ Hoencamp et al., “A Dutch example”; A.L.R. Vermeer, Philipp A. Kohnstamm over democratie (Kampen: Kok, 1987), 147.

⁸⁸ Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 122; and Kohnstamm, Staatspaedagogiek of persoonlijkheidspaedagogiek, 23.

⁸⁹ Philip Kohnstamm, Idealisme contra existentialisme en personalisme (’s-Gravenhage: Daamen’s Uitgeversmaatschappij, 1947).

⁹⁰ Levering and Van Manen, “Phenomenological Anthropology in the Netherlands and Flanders”; and Arie L. Molendijk, “Willem Banning and the Reform of Socialism in the Netherlands”. Contemporary European History 29 (2020), doi:10.1017/S096077732000003X.

⁹¹ Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 519.

⁹² Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid en Idee, 44; Kohnstamm, Bijbel en Jeugd, Kohnstamm, Het waarheidsprobleem, 34, 419–22; and Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, sections 80 and 99.

⁹³ Kohnstamm, Staatspaedagogiek of persoonlijkheidspaedagogiek, 24; and Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 41–3.

⁹⁴ Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 297–310; and Langeveld, BTP, sections 52–57.

⁹⁵ Exalto, “Sexual Hygiene”; and Groenendijk and Bakker, “Child Rearing and the Neuroticization of Parenting”.

⁹⁶ Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 74–5; chapters IV and V; Kohnstamm, “Paedagogiek”, sections 6 and 7.

⁹⁷ Hoencamp et al., “A Dutch example”.

⁹⁸ See e.g. “Gemeenschap en individu in de paedagogiek van Foerster”, Paedagogische Studiën 7, no. 1 (1926): 2–10; and Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording, 524.

⁹⁹ Langeveld, BTP, 83–5.

¹⁰⁰ Bos, M.J. Langeveld; Rang and Rang, “Een bekende onbekende”; and Rispens and Schoorl, “Professionele pedagogische hulpverlening”.

¹⁰¹ Martinus Jan Langeveld, Verkenning en Verdieping (Purmerend: Muusses, 1950), 216; and Martinus Jan Langeveld, Scholen maken mensen (2nd ed.) (Purmerend: Muusses, 1969), 103–4.

¹⁰² Martinus Jan Langeveld, Studien zur Anthropologie des Kindes (3rd edition) (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1968); and Langeveld, Scholen maken mensen.

¹⁰³ Kohnstamm, Persoonlijkheid in wording; 134; Kohnstamm, “Paedagogiek”, 216, 238; Langeveld, BTP, 143. Compare Exalto, “Sexual Hygiene”; and Ernst Mulder, “Kohnstamm en het idee van kinderlijke ontwikkeling”, Pedagogisch Tijdschrift 17, no. 5/6 (1992), 388–95.

¹⁰⁴ Bakker, “The meaning of fear”, 373–8.

¹⁰⁵ Kohnstamm, Staatspaedagogiek of persoonlijkheidspaedagogiek; and Kohnstamm, “Onderwijs in de Vereenigde Staten”, Paedagogische Studiën, no. 9 (1928), 24–5. Compare Gert Biesta and Siebren Miedema, “Feiten en waarden in de ontwikkeling van de Nederlandse academische pedagogiek. Een opmaat voor pedagogisch wetenschapsonderzoek”, Pedagogisch Tijdschrift 14 no. 5/6 (1992): 396–411; and Hoencamp et al., “A Dutch example”; M. Hohmann, Die Pädagogik M.J. Langevelds. Unterschungen zu seinem Wissenschaftsverständnis (Bochum: Kamp, 1971).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Dutch Scientific Organization (NWO) under grant number [023.010.007].

Notes on contributors

Marloes Hoencamp

Marloes Hoencamp is a PhD student in the history of education at the Department of Educational and Family Studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. She also teaches educational theory at Driestar Christian University, Gouda, the Netherlands.

John Exalto

John Exalto works as an assistant professor in the theory and history of education at the Department of Education of the University of Groningen. His research focuses on the relations between identity, religion and education.

Abraham de Muynck

Abraham de Muynck is a professor of education at the Department of Practical Theology of the Theological University of Apeldoorn, the Netherlands, and at the Department of Education, NLA University College in Bergen, Norway. His research focuses on personhood formation and identity.

Doret de Ruyter

Doret de Ruyter is a professor of (philosophy of) education at the University of Humanistic Studies in Utrecht, the Netherlands. Her research focuses on human flourishing as an aim of education.