Understanding the Manufacture of Hetian Administration Banknotes from Xinjiang Using Low- and High-resolution Analytical Methods

ABSTRACT

Analytical studies of ancient Chinese handmade papers and paper-based materials have long faced challenges, due to the need for high-quality, scientifically sound data that can lead to suitable diagnostic criteria. This study applies Herzberg staining, micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), Raman spectroscopy, pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) to five Hetian Administration Banknotes (HABs), a particular type of regional banknotes issued by Ma Hu-shan (1910–1954), a Hui warlord, in southern Xinjiang between 1933 and 1937. The results shed important insights into the use of fiber and dyes on HABs, revealing how locally handmade Sangpi (bark of the mulberry tree, Morus alba L.) papers and imported synthetic dyes (Rhodamine B, Methyl Violet 2B, Direct Black 38, and presumably Sudan II) were combined to serve the needs of the regional economy in southern Xinjiang during the 1930s. We conclude the paper by tentatively proposing guidelines for applying low- and high-resolution analytical methods to understand the manufacture and use of ancient Chinese handmade papers and paper-based materials.

KEYWORDS:

• Handmade Sangpi paper
• synthetic dye
• micro-computed tomography (micro-CT)
• pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS)
• high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. Bing Xiao (肖冰) from the ZEISS Microscopy Customer Center Shanghai for conducting the micro-CT analysis and Ms. Yuanyuan He (何元媛) and Ying Hu (胡颖) from the Department of Archaeology at Wuhan University for their help with the Herzberg staining test.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This study received financial support from the National Social Science Fund of China [grant number 21FKGB004], granted to Tao Li.