Rights or Obligations: The Extent to Which Sexual Desire and Gender Roles Determine Sexual Intimacy in Romantic Relationships

Abstract

The present study aims to investigate the relationship between traditional gender roles and the frequency of sexual intimacy within romantic relationships, considering sexual desire and societal norms and expectations. The study was conducted among a convenience sample of men and women in Israel. The survey included measures of sociodemographic information, traditional gender roles, sexual desire, perceived partner’s sexual desire, and frequency of engaging in sex. Findings suggest that men who embraced less traditional gender roles exhibit a greater synchronization between their own sexual desire and their perceived partner’s sexual desire, whereas women who embraced more traditional gender roles tend to rely more on their partners’ sexual desire in their frequency of sex. These results imply that men’s sexual desire plays a significant role in determining the frequency of sexual activity in romantic relationships, especially in relationships where traditional gender roles are more strongly embraced. Findings from the current study underscore the idea that the decision to engage in intimate acts may not solely hinge on individual sexual desire; rather, it operates within a broader context influenced by societal and cultural expectations. It is important to challenge societal norms to promote more balanced and equitable sexual dynamics in committed relationships.

Introduction

The decision whether to engage in intimate sexual relationships is considered a personal choice that is protected by individual rights and freedoms (WHO, 2006). It is generally accepted that individuals have the right to decide when, how, and with whom they engage in sexual activities. However, this autonomy can be challenged by cultural or religious beliefs that impose specific expectations or limitations on sexual behaviors, which may create a sense of obligation or duty toward engaging in sexual activity within an intimate relationship. The current study focuses on the association between traditional gender roles and the frequency of sexual activity among men and women in committed relationships (Harris, Gormezano, & van Anders, 2022; Leiblum, 2002; Nimbi, Tripodi, Rossi, Navarro-Cremades, & Simonelli, 2020; van Anders, Herbenick, Brotto, Harris, & Chadwick, 2022). It is within this intricate interplay of personal autonomy and external pressures that we find a compelling avenue for exploration in the realm of consent. The decision to engage in intimate acts may not be solely determined by individual sexual desire; it exists within a broader context that includes societal and cultural expectations. The potential association with these external factors, especially those related to traditional gender roles, deserves a closer examination as they may explain some of the dynamics of consent and sexual activity in romantic relationships.

Traditional gender roles often come with specific expectations for men and women, where men are expected to take an active role in initiating sexual activity, while women are expected to be more passive. Thus, the primary objective of this study is to investigate the association between participants’ tendency toward traditional gender roles and their sexual desire, as well as the frequency of sexual activity in their committed relationships. The importance of this study lies in the examination of how societal norms and expectations regarding gender roles are associated with sexual desire and frequency. On a clinical level, it is essential to underscore the significance of exploring cultural and societal expectations surrounding sexual behavior, especially in the context of consent.

Sexual desire in intimate relationships

Sexual desire has also been referred to as sex drive, need for sex, and sexual motivation (Baumeister, Catanese, & Vohs, 2001). Although these different terminologies suggest different aspects of sexual desire, they all refer to the same inclination that encompasses all the forces that lean toward and away from sexual activity (Levine, 2003). The prevailing notion in most theoretical models is that sexual desire is primarily viewed from an individual perspective, and is often examined that way (Prekatsounaki, Gijs, & Enzlin, 2022). Nevertheless, an increasing body of empirical evidence suggests that sexual desire is interdependent and has dyadic components (e.g., Dewitte & Mayer, 2018; Jodouin et al., 2021; Muise et al., 2019; Pawłowska et al., 2023; Rosen et al., 2019). Recent conceptualizations of sexual desire have evolved to distinguish between two primary aspects: solitary sexual desire and dyadic sexual desire. Dyadic sexual desire encompasses an individual’s interest in engaging in sexual activity with another person, whether it be a current sexual partner or someone considered attractive but not a current partner (Moyano, Vallejo-Medina, & Sierra, 2017; Prekatsounaki et al., 2022). On the other hand, solitary sexual desire pertains to the desire for solo sexual behaviors, such as masturbation (Spector, Carey, & Steinberg, 1996). Dyadic sexual desire encompasses a spectrum of interests, ranging from a desire to engage in sexual activity with one’s current partner to those deemed attractive but not currently involved in a sexual relationship (Moyano et al., 2017).

The dyadic approach recognizes that a partner’s perception of their partner’s sexual desire (the level of sexual desire that an individual believes their partner has) can have a significant impact on their own willingness to engage in sexual relations. In some cases, individuals may feel pressured to engage in sex because they believe their partner has a high level of sexual desire, and they want to satisfy their partner’s needs. On the other hand, individuals may feel anxious or overwhelmed if they believe their partner’s sexual desire is much higher than their own, leading to a decrease in their own willingness to engage in sex. To build upon more recent conceptualizations, in the current study both individuals’ own sexual desire and their perception of their partner’s sexual desire were examined in relation to the frequency of sexual activity within the relationship.

Whereas there is an ongoing discussion surrounding the extent of similarity in the sexual needs of intimate partners (Prekatsounaki et al., 2022) many researchers have argued that men have a stronger sexual desire compared to women (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004). Accordingly, it can be assumed that in couple relationships, sexual desire among men would be higher than among women. This perspective is grounded in a multi-faceted framework encompassing biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. Biologically, disparities in hormonal profiles, particularly testosterone levels, have been linked to differences in sexual desire between men and women (Baumeister et al., 2001). Psychological research has delved into individual variations, including sociosexual orientation and sexual fantasies, which may reinforce the perception that men typically possess a heightened sexual desire. Furthermore, sociocultural factors, which are the primary focus of this study, play a pivotal role in the perceptions of sexual desire and contribute significantly to this discourse.

Traditional gender roles and sexual intimacy in romantic relationships

Traditional beliefs of gender roles reflect the perception that men and women have inherently different qualities and thus, have different responsibilities in the social and family environments (Yoon et al., 2015). Traditional gender roles pertain to the belief in gendered roles in the family, where men are providers and decision-makers, and women are caretakers for children and households. This belief assumes a natural order, an indisputable precondition of women and men for specific familial functions. It is reflected in practices that assign specific roles and responsibilities to men and women based on their gender, which limits women’s opportunities for personal and professional growth outside the home (Yoon et al., 2015).

Studies have shown that traditional gender roles can have a negative effect on the sexual desire of both men and women (Nimbi et al., 2020; van Anders et al., 2022). A study of 29 countries found that while gender differences in sexual drive were universal, the gap between the sexual desire of men and women was wider in male-dominated cultures compared to more liberal Western societies. This indicates that cultural norms and gender power dynamics can influence sexual desire and behavior, beyond biological factors (Hakim, 2015). In a recent review, sexual scripts of masculinity were identified as important predictors of low sexual desire (Nimbi et al., 2020). When men hold patriarchal attitudes, they tend to have more rigid and stereotypical views about gender roles, including expectations about sexual behavior and drive which can limit their ability to fully express their sexual desires, leading to decreased sexual satisfaction and a lower level of sexual desire overall. Research on men’s sexual function and satisfaction has been strongly influenced by cultural messages that emphasize masculinity, resulting in a focus on erectile function over sexual desire (Mark & Lasslo, 2018). However, rigid beliefs about virility and sexual performance may create unrealistic expectations about sexuality and reduce confidence in achieving and maintaining erections (Carvalheira, Træen, & Štulhofer, 2014). Social pressure, gender role expectations, and masculine sexual scripts have also been identified as risk factors for sexual desire levels (Murray, 2018). Stigmatization of reduced male libido can further negatively impact sexual satisfaction (McCarthy & McDonald, 2009). Men may feel compelled to report high levels of sexual drive even if it is not authentic just to conform to cultural norms.

According to the heteronormativity theory (van Anders et al., 2022), low sex drive in women partnered with men attends to the structure of heteronormativity and is attributed to socio-structural causes. According to this theory, the unequal distribution of household labor places a considerable burden on women, leading to feelings of inequity and exhaustion, ultimately diminishing their desire. Simultaneously, the blurring of maternal and partnership roles, where women often find themselves mothering their partners, can lead to feelings of overwhelm and a perceived lack of reciprocity in caregiving, further contributing to decreased desire. Societal objectification of women, as outlined in the theory, can also reduce women’s sexual agency and autonomy, impacting their desire. Additionally, gender norms surrounding sexual initiation may limit women’s ability to express their desires and initiate sexual encounters. In addition, traditional gender roles often emphasize women’s sexual purity and restrict women’s sexual expression, and if internalized by women may result in shame and guilt over sexual drive and expression (Crawford & Popp, 2003). Finally, individuals adhering to traditional gender roles may continue to engage in sexual activity even when their desire diminishes due to cultural or societal expectations, feeling that sex is an obligation or duty within their relationship. In relationships characterized by traditional gender roles, sexual interactions can sometimes be perceived as a male entitlement and a female duty (van Anders et al., 2022) Consequently, the male sexual desire may take precedence over the female desire for sexual fulfillment. This dynamic in which sexual activity is not driven by genuine desire or pleasure can potentially contribute to further decreases in sexual satisfaction.

The present study

The theoretical framework of this study acknowledges the societal norms and expectations related to gender and the traditional roles assigned to men and women in intimate relationships. Within this framework, the present study seeks to investigate the connections between traditional gender roles, gender itself, men’s and women’s sexual desire, and the frequency of sex. Building upon the findings presented earlier, we have formulated the following hypotheses for the current study: Hypothesis 1 suggests that sexual desire, attraction, and the frequency of sexual relations will exhibit higher reported rates among male participants compared to female participants, and among participants with low support for traditional gender roles in contrast to those with high support for such roles. Hypothesis 2 posits that reported sexual desire and attraction among male participants will demonstrate a stronger positive association with the frequency of sexual relations compared to their perceived partners’ sexual desire. However, for female participants, these correlations will be inverted, indicating that sexual desire and attraction will have a weaker positive correlation with the frequency of sexual relations when compared to their perceived partners’ sexual desire. In Hypothesis 3, the correlations proposed in Hypothesis 2 will be further examined, taking into account not only the gender differences but also the level of support for traditional gender roles. This will result in the exploration of four distinct groups: women with high support for traditional gender roles, women with low support for traditional gender roles, men with high support for traditional gender roles, and men with low support for traditional gender roles. It is hypothesized that the findings from Hypothesis 2, pertaining to the distinctions between male and female research participants, will be amplified with the introduction of sociocultural inclinations.

Methods

Procedure

We conducted a web-based survey of a convenience sample of men and women in Israel. Participants were recruited via social media (Facebook and Instagram). The survey took ∼10 min to complete and was open from June 1 to August 25, 2022. The survey was anonymous, and no data linking the participants to recruitment sources were collected. The Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Social Welfare and Health Sciences at the University of Haifa has granted approval for all procedures and instruments.

Inclusion criteria included being 25–50 years of age and cohabiting with the current partner for at least 12 months. The minimum age requirement of 25 was set to ensure that participants are more likely to be in serious, mature relationships. The maximum age cap of 50 may be in place to avoid potential effects of older age, such as menopause, which could impact the dynamics of sexual relationships and activity. Individuals were invited to participate in a study on sex, sexuality, and intimate partner relationships, by clicking on the survey link. Clicking on the survey link guided potential respondents to a page that provided information about the purpose of the study, the nature of the questions, and a consent form (i.e., the survey was voluntary; respondents could skip any questions or quit at any time; responses were anonymous). In addition, the first page offered researchers contact information and details of mental health crisis centers, should participants feel distress and the need for mental health assistance. No compensation was given for participating in the study.

Ensuring diversity

To recruit a diverse sample, the invitation to participate in the study was advertised both on social media outlets used by the general public as well as on more ethnic- and cultural-specific networks and online forums, such as Israeli citizens of Ethiopian or Palestinian-Arab roots. It seems that these two specific groups lean toward conservativism and traditionalism to a greater extent than the rest of the sample which mainly included Jewish secular males and females (Hasenson-Atzmon et al., 2018; Magadley & Amara, 2018). To ensure that different groups could participate in the study, the survey was distributed in the two main languages of Israel: Hebrew and Arabic. The civilian status of research participants was not part of the participation criteria, but all participants were residents of Israel. Recruiting Israeli Arabs-Palestinians to participate in a study about sex and sexuality is a challenging task, as these subjects are sensitive; thus, recruitment for that group was conducted not only through social media but also using a snowball sampling, where acquaintances of the research group members were asked to forward the survey link to their contacts. All measures were translated to Hebrew and Arabic following a pre-established translation procedure for cross-cultural studies (Beaton, Bombardier, Guillemin, & Ferraz, 2000). The process involved translating the Hebrew version into Arabic by a professional translator, then back into Hebrew by a bilingual individual. Differences were corrected in the Arabic version through several iterations with bilingual individuals until both versions matched.

Participants

Research participants were 675 men and women who reported being in an intimate sexual relationship for the previous 12 months or longer (see Table 1). The sample included 55% women and 45% men. The Hebrew version of the questionnaire was completed by 78.5% of all participants and the rest 21.5% of the sample completed the Arabic version of the questionnaire. Most of the participants were born in Israel (88.3%) and small percentages of the rest were born in other countries, such as Ethiopia (2.9%). The mean age of the participants was 39.56 years (SD = 21.19). Most participants were Jewish (73.9%), and the rest were Muslims (14.5%), Druze (7.6%), Christians (2.7%), or other (1.3%). Reported levels of religiosity were non-religious (36.1%), secular-traditional (21.3%), religious (18.7%), and ultra-Orthodox (3.6%). The majority of participants had higher education: 1.8% reported <12 years of schooling; 11.7% reported high school education; 48.9% had a Bachelor’s degree; 31.9% had a Master’s degree, and 5.8% had a Doctoral-level degree. Participants also reported their sexual orientations: 82.8% heterosexual; 5.9% mostly heterosexual; 2% same-sex; 6% mostly same-sex; 0.2% bisexual; 0.2% pansexual; 0.2% asexual; 0.5% reported not knowing their orientation; 3.2% other; 3% did not answer the question. Most participants were married to their partners (79.3%), whereas 14.7% were unmarried and cohabiting, and 6.1% reported living separately. Average relationship tenure in years was 11.35 (SD: 7.52). The average number of children was 2.33 (SD = 1.65). Regarding economic status, 11.6% reported lower than average economic status; 61% average, and 27.4% reported higher than average economic status. The characteristics of this sample indicate a tendency toward a middle-high economic status.

Table 1. Participants characteristics.

Characteristics	N = 675
Sex	Male	55%
	Female	45%
Language version of the questionnaire	Hebrew	78.5%
	Arabic	21.5%
Country of birth	Israel	88.3%
	Ethiopia	2.9%
	Other	8.8%
Age	39.56 years (SD = 21.19)
Religious	Jewish	73.9%
	Muslims	14.5%
	Druze	7.6%
	Christians	2.7%
	Other	1.3%
Religiosity	Non-religious	36.1%
	Secular-traditional	21.3%
	Religious	18.7%
	Ultra-Orthodox	3.6%
Education level	<12 years	1.8%
	High school	11.7%
	Bachelor’s degree	48.9%
	Master’s degree	31.9%
	Doctoral degree	5.8%
Sexual orientations	Heterosexual	82.8%
	Mostly heterosexual	5.9%
	Same-sex	2%
	Mostly same-sex	6%
	Bisexual	0.2%
	Pansexual	0.2%
	Asexual	0.2%
	Not knowing	.5%
	No answer	3%
Relationship status	Married	79.3%
	Cohabiting	14.7%
	Living separately	6.1%
Relationship duration in years	11.35 (SD: 7.52)
Number of children	2.33 (SD = 1.65)
Economic status	Lower than average	11.6%
	Average	61%
	Higher than average	27.4%

Measures

Sociodemographic information included age, gender, religion, religiosity, educational level, relationship status, occupation, income,

Traditional Gender Roles were measured using the Domestic Roles subscale of the Patriarchal Beliefs Scale (PBS; Yoon et al., 2015). The domestic roles subscale (11 items), which encompassed beliefs about gender roles in the family (man as breadwinner and decision maker/woman as caretaker and housework). Items are answered on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with a higher score reflecting greater endorsement of traditional gender roles beliefs. Internal consistency in the present study was excellent (α = .94). The variable was computed in two ways. One way was to represent an independent variable in the first model, calculated based on items’ mean values. Another way was for the second model where the measure serves as a dichotomous variable differentiating between two groups. One group represents high support for traditional gender roles and the other low support for traditional gender roles. This dichotomous variable was encoded based on the mean values of the beliefs supporting traditional sex roles variable. The values smaller than the original mid-scale (3>) represented low support for traditional gender roles and the values larger than mid-scale (3<) represented high support for traditional gender roles.

Perceived own sexual desire was assessed by a single question: “In the past year, how strong was your sexual desire to be intimate with your partner?” Answers ranged from (1) weak; (2) moderate; and (3) strong.

Perceived own attraction to partner was assessed by a single question: “In the past year, how strong were you sexually attracted to your partner?” Answers ranged from (1) weak; (2) moderate; and (3) strong.

Perceived partner’s sexual desire was assessed by a single question: “In the past year, how strong was your partner’s sexual desire to be intimate with you?” Answers ranged from (1) weak; (2) moderate; and (3) strong.

Frequency of engaging in sexual relations was assessed by a single question: “In the past year, how often did you and your partner engage in sex?” (1) we did not engage in sex at all in the past year; (2) 1–3 times in the past year; (3) 1–3 time in six months; (4) 1–3 times a month; (5) 1–3 time a week; (6) almost every day. This measure was derived from the question concerning sexual frequency in the International Sex Survey (ISS; Bőthe et al., 2022).

Data analysis

The present study aims to investigate the effect of gender and traditional gender roles on the relationship between respondents own level of sexual desire, their perceived partner’s sexual desire, and the frequency of sexual relations within romantic relationships. To test the first research hypothesis, the effects of participants’ gender and their dichotomous tendency toward traditional gender roles on the four study variables were examined using four ANOVAs to provide Inferential and descriptive statistics.

To test the second hypothesis, a structural model was analyzed using AMOS-27 (Model 1). In this model the traditional role division was an independent variable that affects the relationship between participants’ own level of sexual desire, their perceived partners’ sexual desire, and the frequency of sexual relations. The participants’ gender was presented as a moderating variable. In addition, relationship duration was presented as a control variable.

To test the third hypothesis, an additional structural model was analyzed using AMOS-27 (Model 2). Similar to the previous model, this analysis aimed to investigate the relationship between participants’ individual levels of sexual desire, their perceptions of their partners’ sexual desire, and the frequency of sexual relations. However, in this model, the traditional role division was not employed as an independent variable but rather as a moderator. It was recoded as a dichotomous variable to differentiate between individuals with high support for traditional gender roles and those with low support for traditional gender roles.

Additionally, the participant’s gender was introduced as a moderator. Consequently, the research model was tested for four distinct groups: (1) women with high support for traditional gender roles, (2) women with low support for traditional gender roles, (3) men with high support for traditional gender roles, and (4) men with low support for traditional gender roles. Importantly, in a preliminary test, the effects relevant to the research hypotheses were tested freely and then constrained to equal between the tested groups. These constraints yielded significant changes in fit indices as compared to the non-constrained.

Findings

Inferential and descriptive statistics

To examine the first hypothesis—the effects of participants’ gender and their support for traditional gender roles on the four study variables, four ANOVA tests were conducted. Table 2 presents the results of these tests. Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics of the interaction terms for gender and the tendency toward traditional gender roles in the four tests. The analysis findings detailed below supported hypothesis 1.

Table 2. ANOVA’s inference statistics for the research variables.

Effect	ANOVA’s dependent variables
	Sexual desire (to partner)	Attraction to partner	Perceived partner’s sexual desire	Frequency of sexual relations
Respondent sex	F(1,644) = 11.371, p = .001, η^2 = .017	F(1,643) = 23.743, p < .001, η^2 = .036	F(1,645) = 0.20, p = .888, η^2 = .000	F(1,645) = 7.758, p = .006, η^2 = .012
Support for traditional gender roles	F(1,644) = 4.739, p = .030, η^2 = .007	F(1,643) = 10.740, p = .001, η^2 = .017	F(1,645) = 3.421, p = .065, η^2 = .005	F(1,645) = 5.848, p = .016, η^2 = .009
Respondent sex*Support for traditional gender roles	F(1,644) = 1.178, p = .278, η^2 = .002	F(1,643) = .014, p = .907, η^2 = .000	F(1,645) = 2.064, p = .151, η^2 = .003	F(1,645) = .682, p = .409, η^2 = .001

Note: Respondent sex: (0 = Male; 1 = Female); Support for traditional gender roles (0 = low support for traditional gender roles; 1 = High support for traditional gender roles); Frequency of sexual relations was measured in the past year.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for the research variables.

Sex	Support for traditional gender roles	Sexual desire (toward partner)		Attraction to partner		Perceived partners’ sexual desire		Frequency of sexual relations
		Mean	Std. error	Mean	Std. error	Mean	Std. error	Mean	Std. error
Male	Low	2.318	.050	2.004	.052	2.004	.052	4.094	.077
	High	2.047	.096	1.969	.099	1.969	.099	3.891	.148
Female	Low	1.948	.044	2.140	.045	2.140	.045	3.844	.067
	High	1.857	.118	1.857	.123	1.857	.123	3.429	.182

Note: Respondent sex: (0 = Male; 1 = Female); Support for traditional gender roles (0 = low support for traditional gender roles; 1 = High support for traditional gender roles); Frequency of sexual relations was measured in the past year.

Results suggest that sexual desire among male participants (M = 2.18, SE = .054), and their level of attraction to their partner (M = 2.32, SE = .052) were significantly higher than the female participants’ sexual desire (M = 1.90, SE = .063), and the level of attraction to their partner (M = 1.92, SE = .061). In addition, men in our sample reported significantly higher frequency of sexual relations (M = 3.99, SE = .083) than women (M = 3.64, SE = .097). No significant differences were found in participants’ perceived partner’s sexual desire among men (M = 1.99, SE = .062) and women (M = 2.00, SE = .065).

In terms of perceptions of traditional gender roles, results revealed significant differences between participants with high support for traditional gender roles and those with low support for traditional gender roles in the levels of individuals’ sexual desire and their perceived partner’s sexual desire (M = 2.13, SE = .033; M = 1.95, SE = .076, respectively), and attraction to partner (M = 2.25, SE = .032; M = 1.99, SE = .074, respectively). Participants with high support for traditional gender roles also reported higher frequency of sexual relations (M = 3.97, SE = .051) than participant low support for traditional gender roles (M = 3.66, SE = .12). No significant differences were found between participants with low support for traditional gender roles (M = 2.07, SE = .04) and participants with high support for traditional gender roles (M = 1.91, SE = .079) in their perceived partner’s sexual desire.

The interaction terms for participants’ gender and sexual desire, attraction to partner, and perceived partner’s sexual desire, and for perceptions of traditional gender roles and sexual desire, attraction to partner, and perceived partner’s sexual desire, were non-significant in all ANOVA tests (see Table 3).

Study Model 1: Differences among men and women in the associations between sexual desire and frequency of sexual relations

We tested our first study model using a multigroup SEM analysis (AMOS-27). Figure 1 presents the results of this analysis. Participants’ gender was the multigroup variable. This analysis examined the associations among the study variables for men and women separately but additionally provides fit indexes for the model as a whole, which were satisfying [χ²₍₁₄₎ = 15.623, p = .337, NFI = .99, IFI = .99, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .013, N = 675; N Male = 307; N Female = 368]. This model included two variables: first, the tendency to hold traditional gender roles within couples, and relationship duration. It tested the effects of these two variables on participants’ sexual desire to engage in sexual intimacy with their partner, their perceived partner’s sexual desire, and the frequency of their sexual relations over the previous 12 months. In addition, the model tested the effects of participants’ own sexual desire to be intimate with their partner and their perceived partner’s sexual desire, on the frequency of their sexual relations over the previous 12 months. Participants’ sexual desire was entered into the model as a latent variable representing two indicators, namely: sexual desire and attraction to partner. The latent factor loaded well onto its indicators among both men and women (Factor Loading > .7). Participants’ gender had a significant effect on the associations between the study variables. Among both male and female participants, no significant association was found between relationship duration and the tendency to hold traditional gender roles within couples. However, whereas among female participants relationship duration had no significant effect on any of the variables, among male participants it had a significant negative effect on their perceived partner’s sexual desire (β_Male = −0.15), as well as on the frequency of sexual relations over the past 12 months (β_Male = −0.17). For men only, the longer their relationship duration was, the lower they perceived their partner’s sexual desire was, as well as the frequency of sexual relations with their partner. The analysis findings detailed below supported hypothesis 2.

Figure 1. Two-group SEM model. Dotted line: non-significant, constrained to “0.” Note: In a preliminary test the effects relevant to the research hypotheses were tested freely and then constrained to equal between the tested groups. These constraints yielded significant changes in fit indices as compared to the non-constrained test.

A visual representation of the statistical results from the analysis, showing associations between traditional gender roles, relationship duration, sexual desire, perceived partner's sexual desire, and the frequency of sexual relations. The figure includes paths and coefficients for men and women separately, as well as overall fit indices for the entire model. Dotted lines indicate non-significant associations. Key findings and significant associations are highlighted in the figure.

Among both men and women, a tendency toward traditional gender roles had a negative effect on their own sexual desire (β_Male = −0.26; β_Female = −0.21), such that participants with high support for traditional gender roles had lower sexual desire. However, whereas women’s tendency toward traditional gender roles was negatively associated with their perceived partner’s sexual desire (β_Female = −0.19), men’s tendency toward traditional gender roles was not.

Although in both men and women, sexual desire had a positive effect on the way they perceived their partner’s sexual desire, this effect was stronger for women (β_Male = .27; β_Female = .45). In terms of the frequency of sexual relations with their partner, both the participants’ own sexual desire and their perceived partner’s sexual desire had a positive effect on this variable. There were, however, differences between male and female participants, such that whereas among men, the effect of sexual desire on the frequency of sexual relations was higher (β_Male = .60) than their perceived partner’s sexual desire (β_Male = .21), among women, the effect of the perceived partner’s sexual desire on the frequency of sexual relations was higher (β_Female = .61) than their own sexual desire (β_Male = .28).

Study Model 2: Differences in the relationships between sexual desire and the frequency of sexual activity based on support for traditional gender roles

In addition to examining differences between men and women regarding the associations between the study’s variables (Model 1), we also sought to explore the effect of participants’ tendency to adhere to traditional beliefs about gender roles on the outcome variables. To do so, we conducted another multigroup SEM analysis (AMOS-27), where four groups were created according to participants’ gender (men/women) and adherence to more traditional beliefs about gender roles. Figure 2 presents the results of this analysis.

Figure 2. Four-group SEM model. Dotted line: non-significant, constrained to “0.” Note: In a preliminary test the effects relevant to the research hypotheses were tested freely and then constrained to equal between the tested groups. These constraints yielded significant changes in fit indices as compared to the non-constrained test.

A visual representation of the statistical results from Model 2, which explores differences in the relationships between sexual desire and the frequency of sexual activity based on support for traditional gender roles and gender. The figure includes paths and coefficients for four groups: women with high support for traditional gender roles, women with low support for traditional gender roles, men with high support for traditional gender roles, and men with low support for traditional gender roles. Dotted lines indicate non-significant associations. Key findings and significant associations are highlighted in the figure.

Support of traditional gender roles was used to compute the new two variables: high support for traditional gender roles (represented a tendency toward supporting traditional gender roles) and low support for traditional gender roles (represented the participant’s tendency toward rejecting traditional gender roles). Based on the two dichotomous variables, four groups were created: (1) women with high support for traditional gender roles, (2) women with low support for traditional gender roles, (3) men with high support for traditional gender roles, and (4) men with low support for traditional gender roles. For each of these groups, the current model (Model 2) tested the effects of sexual desire and their perceived partner’s sexual desire (IVs) on the frequency of sexual relations with the partner over the last 12 months (DV). The results pointed to significant differences in the associations between the study variables across the four groups. The model yielded good fit indexes [χ²₍₆₎ = 6.347, p = .385, NFI = .99, IFI = 1, CFI = 1, RMSEA < .009, N = 675]; men with low support for traditional gender roles (n = 233); men with high support for traditional gender roles (n = 64); women with low support for traditional gender roles (n = 308); women with high support for traditional gender roles (n = 43). The analysis findings detailed below supported hypothesis 3.

Generally, similarly to Model 1, Model 2 identifies significant differences between men and women in the tested associations. In the current model, however, these differences were stronger than in the previous model, probably due to the interaction with the perceptions of traditional gender roles variable. It is worth mentioning that, in Model 1, the frequency of sexual relations among men was associated with their own sexual desire more than their perceived partner’s sexual desire, but among women, the frequency was higher due to the perceived partner’s sexual desire rather than their own sexual desire. In both cases, it seems that the male’s sexual desire was strongly associated with the frequency of sexual relations than the female’s.

In terms of male participants, results documented a significant difference in the association between their sexual desire and their perceived partner’s sexual desire across men. Whereas among men with high support for traditional gender roles, no association was found between these variables the association was significant among men with low support for traditional gender roles (r = .30). This finding suggests that the sexual desire of men with low support for traditional gender roles is aligned more with their perceived partner’s sexual desire than men with high support for traditional gender roles. No other differences were found between the two groups of men. Additionally, and similarly to the results of Model 1, the effect of sexual desire on the frequency of relations was stronger for men than for women.

The findings on the differences across female participants were a bit more complicated than on male participants. First, similarly to the results in Model 1, women’s frequency of sexual relations with their partners was primarily associated with their perceived partner’s sexual desire rather than their own sexual desire. However, it is important to note that while the sexual desire of women who had lower support for traditional gender roles was significantly associated with the frequency of their sexual relations with their partner (β = .30), this effect was notably smaller than the influence of their perceived partner’s sexual desire. On the other hand, women who held strong support for traditional gender roles exhibited no significant effect of their own sexual desire on the frequency of sexual relations. Moreover, among women with high support for traditional gender roles, only their perceived partner’s sexual desire was associated with the frequency of sexual relations (β = .84). Furthermore, the association between women’s sexual desire and their perceived partner’s sexual desire was stronger among women with high support for traditional gender roles (r = .65) than in women with low support for traditional gender roles (r = .45). Generally, these associations were stronger among women than among men.

When comparing men and women with high support for traditional gender roles, differences become more extreme. Whereas there is no significant association between men’s sexual desire and their perceived partner’s sexual desire, the association between these variables among women is very strong and highly significant (r = .65). In addition, whereas among men with high support for traditional gender roles, it is their own sexual desire that is associated with the frequency of their sexual relations with their partner (β = .65), among women it is only their perceived partner’s sexual desire that is associated with the frequency of sexual relations (β = .84). To explore whether these results are different for heterosexual and non-heterosexual couples, the SEM model that differentiates between men and women was reexamined for participants who stated being only heterosexual (82.8% of the sample): the trends found in the total sample model were identified in this group as well.

Discussion

The goal of the present study was to examine the association between traditional gender roles and the frequency of sexual relations in committed relationships, by examining the role of one’s personal sexual desire, and their perceived partner’s sexual desire. Findings suggest that men report higher sexual desire and frequency of sexual relations compared to women. Participants with more traditional beliefs about gender roles showed lower sexual desire but engaged in sexual relations more frequently. Multigroup SEM analysis unveiled significant gender-related differences in these associations. Among men, their own sexual desire had a stronger association with sexual frequency, while women displayed a stronger association between their perceived partner’s desire and sexual frequency. Furthermore, greater adherence among women to more traditional beliefs about gender roles was linked to their partner’s desire and subsequently to sexual frequency.

Consistent with prior research (e.g., Baumeister et al., 2001; Frankenbach, Weber, Loschelder, Kilger, & Friese, 2022), men reported a greater intensity of sexual desire with their partners compared to women. Additionally, men in the sample reported a higher frequency of sexual relations with their partners. It is worth noting that these differences in reported sexual desire could be influenced by a bias in research, where men tend to be more forthcoming in reporting their sexual activities compared to women (Baumeister et al., 2001). This observation suggests that traditional gender roles may already be at play, shaping societal expectations and norms surrounding males’ and females’ sexual desires and behaviors. However, there were no significant differences between genders in their perceived partner’s sexual desire.

Secondly, the study examined the effect of participants’ tendency toward traditional gender roles on the variables of sexual desire, perceived partner’s sexual desire, and frequency of sexual relations. Participants with higher support for traditional gender roles exhibited lower levels of sexual desire and attraction to their partner compared to those with low support for traditional gender roles. Additionally, participants with low support for traditional gender roles reported a higher frequency of sexual relations with their partners compared to those with high support for traditional gender roles. These findings provide insights into the complex interplay between individuals’ adherence to traditional gender roles and their attitudes and behaviors related to sex. It suggests that individuals with high support for traditional gender roles prioritize conformity to traditional gender norms, which can potentially impact their own sexual desires. On the other hand, individuals with low support for traditional gender roles may prioritize personal agency and sexual expression, leading to a higher frequency of sexual relations. However, both participants with low and high support for traditional gender roles seemed to perceive their partner’s sexual desire in a similar manner, indicating that this aspect may not be strongly associated with their ideological perspectives on gender roles. The unexpected and somewhat paradoxical relationship between traditional views and reported sexual desire among men prompts a deeper exploration. Conventional assumptions often link conservative views with a heightened desire for sex, aligning with the notion that men, according to these views, are predisposed to want sex more than women. Surprisingly, our study revealed a counterintuitive trend. Men with more conservative views reported, on average, a lower desire for sex, challenging the stereotype that conservative men inherently have stronger sexual desires (Nimbi et al., 2020) One plausible interpretation of this paradox is that reported sexual desires may, in part, be influenced by societal expectations and social desirability, rather than solely being rooted in inherent biological factors. Moreover, it appears that a person’s perception of their own sexual desire can be shaped by their ideological stance, whether conservative or liberal. In this context, it may be that more conservative men report a lower desire for sex. Further investigation is warranted to understand the complexity of the relationship between sexual desire, gender, and ideological perspectives.

Finally, the study examined the association between participants’ gender and their support of traditional gender roles in relation to the study variables. The findings indicated that the associations between these variables varied across different groups, highlighting gender-specific patterns. Among men, the duration of the relationship had a negative association with their perceived partner’s sexual desire and the frequency of sexual relations. However, among women, the duration of the relationship did not have a significant association with these variables, suggesting that relationship duration may have a different impact on men and women when it comes to perceive their partner’s sexual desire and engaging in sexual activity. In other words, when it comes to determining the frequency of sexual relations, the study found that men’s sexual desires played a more prominent role than women’s sexual desires. This observation suggests that, in general, the association between one’s own sexual desire and the frequency of sexual activity in the relationship is stronger among men. This can be explained by societal and cultural norms that often reinforce traditional gender roles, which place men as the initiators of sexual activity. These norms may create an expectation that men have a higher level of sexual desire and should take the lead in initiating sexual encounters (Harris et al., 2022; Leiblum, 2002; Rubin et al., 2019; van Anders et al., 2022; Vink, Derks, Ellemers, & van der Lippe, 2023).

Considering how traditional gender roles interact with gender, the findings revealed notable differences between men and women. Among men, men with low support for traditional gender roles exhibited a stronger alignment between their own sexual desire and their perceived partner’s sexual desire compared to individuals with high support for traditional gender roles. This suggests that men with low support for traditional gender roles prioritize mutual satisfaction and engage in sexual activity based on their own and their partner’s desires. On the other hand, among men with high support for traditional gender roles, there may be a stronger tendency for them to have a dominant role in deciding when sexual activity occurs. For women with high support for traditional gender roles, their own sexual desire was not significantly associated with the reported frequency of sexual activity. Instead, their partner’s perceived sexual desire played a more significant role. This may suggest that women with high support for traditional gender roles perceive sex more as a duty to fulfill their partner’s sexual needs rather than an expression of their own desire (Khoei, Whelan, & Cohen, 2008). Based on the findings, we conclude that in conservative relationships, the decision-making power regarding the frequency of sex may lean more toward the male partner.

Limitations

The results of the present study must be considered in light of its limitations. First, an important limitation of the study is its cross-sectional correlational design. Thus, causality cannot be established. Longitudinal research designs or experimental studies would be necessary to establish causal relationships and explore how changes in gender attitudes and roles may impact sexual experiences over time. Second, the study relied on self-report measures and participants’ responses were subject to potential response biases and shared method variances. Factors, such as social desirability bias may have influenced participants to present themselves in a more socially acceptable light, potentially impacting the accuracy of their responses. Moreover, participants’ subjective interpretations of questions related to sexual desire and evaluations of their partner’s sexual desire may not fully capture the complexity of their experiences. This subjectivity introduces a potential source of measurement error that could affect the reliability and validity of the findings. Future research in this area could consider employing alternative methodologies, such as Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) or daily diaries. These approaches would allow for more frequent and ecologically valid assessments of the frequency of sexual intimacy and sexual desire over time, reducing recall bias and providing a more granular understanding of how these factors fluctuate in real-life contexts. Third, the study only captured the perspective of one partner, limiting our understanding of how one partner’s gender attitudes and roles are associated with sexual desire and frequency of sexual intimacy in the relationship. The subjective nature of rating a partner’s perceived sexual desire is also a limitation. Fourth, the present study pertains to the assessment of sexual desire which may not fully capture the dynamic nature of individuals’ sexual desires and important short-term variations that could provide a more nuanced understanding of participants’ sexual experiences. Also, sexual desire was assessed using a 3-point Likert scale which may not have allowed participants to express the full range and subtlety of their feelings and experiences related to their sexual desire.

Finally, qualitative interviews are essential for gaining a deeper understanding of how men and women interpret and navigate their role in initiating sexual relations from a cultural and religious perspective. For example, within religious communities, there may be specific teachings and beliefs regarding sexual practices that significantly influence sexual behaviors and attitudes. Exploring how individuals within these frameworks interpret and reconcile their own desires with cultural and religious expectations can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the findings and offer insights into how cultural and religious factors intersect with gender and sexuality.

Clinical implications

The clinical implications of this study highlight the importance of considering gender and traditional gender roles in therapeutic interventions addressing sexual concerns. For clinicians working with heterosexual couples, it is crucial to recognize the potential effect societal and cultural norms have on men’s and women’s evaluations that place men as the initiators of sexual activity. Therapists can help couples navigate these dynamics by fostering open dialogue, challenging traditional gender norms, and promoting shared decision-making when it comes to sexual activity. For individuals with high support for traditional gender roles, especially women, therapy should focus on addressing potential perceptions of sex as an obligation or duty to fulfill their partner’s sexual needs. This study underscores the fundamental principle of consent, which includes the ability to freely choose and the option to decline sexual activity without fear of negative consequences. Furthermore, this study highlights the impact of societal expectations and teachings, particularly the belief that a married woman should be available to fulfill her husband’s sexual needs. This dynamic is seen as detrimental to the development of genuine desire and intimacy within relationships, undermining women’s sexual agency and autonomy. Therapists can help women explore their own sexual desires, assert their preferences, and negotiate sexual encounters based on personal agency and mutual consent.

Conclusion

This study suggests that men with low support for traditional gender roles showed a stronger alignment between their own and their partner’s sexual needs, and women with high support for traditional gender roles relied more on their partner’s sexual desire. These findings suggest that men’s sexual desires have a prominent role in determining the frequency of sexual activity, especially in conservative relationships. They further highlight the complex interplay between gender, traditional gender roles, and sexual behavior, shedding light on the importance of challenging societal norms to promote more equitable sexual dynamics.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

None.