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Abstract
The study at hand focuses on youths in Thailand’s violence-ridden Deep South, since they tend to become drawn into political struggles more than other groups. Youths are not only targets of security officials but are people who represent the future of Thailand’s Deep South. Using the concept of political space from the United States’ National Democratic Institute (NDI) and the conflict transformation theory of John Paul Lederach, this study found that national security measures drawn up by the Thai state have limited the political space of youth in conflict area. The main target group of this study is youths of 15–35 years old who have sought to broaden political space with regard to social and political activities. This study shows that the Thai government has used the strategy of “Politics leading the military,” prioritizing political space rather than using force to solve problems. However, state policies were organized under a framework of security which affected the political expression of young people. Nevertheless, youths have been aware of this limitation and have thus sought to improve their strategies of broadening political space as a means of helping to create a more fear-free atmosphere to increase their influence on potential peacebuilding processes.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “How OECD Guidelines to Help Prevent Violent Conflict Can Also Aid Development”, News Room, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, March 8, https://www.oecd.org/newsroom/howoecdguidelinestohelppreventviolentconflictcanalsoaiddevelopment.htm (accessed March 8, 2023).
2 Ibid.
3 Rashmi Thapa, “Global Survey on Youth, Peace and Security: A Descriptive Report on the Challenges, Activities, Achievements, Strengths and Needs of Youth-Led Organisations”, (United Network of Young Peacebuilders, Search for Common Ground, The Hague, 2017), 44–45, https://www.academia.edu/35859816/Global_survey_on_youth_peace_and_security_pdf (accessed March 26, 2023).
4 United Nations, World Youth Report 2013: Youth and Migration (New York: United Nations, 2013), 13, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3868796 (accessed March 26, 2023).
5 The Subgroup on Youth Participation in Peacebuilding of the United Nations Interagency Network on Youth Development, Guiding Principles on Young People’s Participation in Peacebuilding (New York: United Nations, 2015), https://www.sfcg.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Guiding-Principles_EN.pdf (accessed March 26, 2023).
6 United Nation, “Security Council, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2250 (2015), Urges Member States to Increase Representation of Youth in Decision-Making at All Levels”, Meetings Coverage and Press Releases, United Nation, last modified December 9, 2015, https://press.un.org/en/2015/sc12149.doc.htm (accessed March 26, 2023).
7 Neil J. Molvin, Conflict in Southern Thailand: Islamism, Violence and the State in the Patani Insurgency, SIPRI Policy Paper, No.20 (Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2007), https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/files/PP/SIPRIPP20.pdf (accessed March 26, 2013). Paul Chambers, Srisompob Jitpiromsri, and Napisa Waitoolkiat, “Introduction: Conflict in the Deep South of Thailand: Never-ending Stalemate?”, Asian International Review, 20 (2019), 46–47 doi: 10.16934/isr.20.1.201906.1.
8 “Conflict Incident Databases”, Conflict Incident Databases, Deep South Watch, last modified January, 2023, https://www.facebook.com/photo?fbid=565281362304928&set=pcb.565279912305073 (accessed March 26, 2023).
9 “Southern Border of Thailand/Pattani 2547-2564: Stepping into the nineteenth year, how far will peace progress in the year 2022?”, last modified January 2022, https://cscd.psu.ac.th/th/node/357 (accessed March 26, 2023).
10 Duayjai Group, Human Rights and Peace Progress Report in Southern Thailand 2022 (Pattani, Thailand: Duayjai Group, 2022), 3.
11 Srisompob Jitpiromsri et al, “The 7th Public Opinion Survey on the Peace Process in the Southern Border Provinces of Thailand” (Research Report Submitted to Prince of Songlka University and King Prajadhipok’s Institute, Thailand, 2023, Forthcoming). Peace Survey is a systematic random sampling survey to explore the well-being and opinions of people in the Southern Border Provinces (including the provinces of Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat, and four districts of Songkhla (Chana, Thepha, Nathawi, and Sabayoy) regarding the restiveness, peacebuilding and other issues which are relevant to the local area as well as to explore causes of the problems and develop recommendations per peace process in the Southern Border Provinces.
12 There are 20,794 samples from 1st -7th of The Public Opinion Survey on the Peace Process in the Southern Border Provinces of Thailand (2016–2023).
13 Pornsan Piyanantisak, “Book Review: The Management of Protracted Social Conflict: Theory and Cases” By Edward E. Azar,” Political Science and Public Administration, 5, no. 1 (2020): 169–178.
14 Veronique Dudouet, “Transitions from Revisiting Analysis and Violence to Peace Intervention in Conflict Transformation” (No. 15, Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, Berlin, 2006), 3–4, https://berghof-foundation.org/files/publications/br15e.pdf (accessed March 27, 2023).
15 Phrae Sirisakdam-Koeng, The Struggle Movement in the Three Southern Border Provinces of Thailand: Non-Violent Fighters (Bangkok, Thailand: Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre, 2011), 68–69, 78–79, 83.
16 In January 2004 weapons raid at the 4th Battalion Development Battalion Camp in Narathiwat Province marked the start of a new wave of violence. Since then, the region was controlled by the Thai state and security agencies through their enforcement of special laws such as the emergency decree and martial law.
17 Sutthana Vichittrananda, Nuchanad Juntavises and Ekkarin Tuansiri, Reintegration: Voices from the Conflict-affected Deep South (Bangkok, Thailand: Korea Trust Fund and the World Bank, 2019), 63.
18 Ibid.,51.
19 Romadon Panjor, Understanding the Political Dynamics during Fifteen Years of Violence (Bangkok, Thailand: Thailand Science Research and Innovation, 2020), 145.
20 Ibid.,160.
21 Ibid.,148.
22 Ibid.,146.
23 Ibid.,149.
24 Ibid.,151.
25 Ibid.,152.
26 Wildan Dendara, “The Role of Youth Groups in Southern Border of Thailand/Patani in Advocatinf Peace Agenda” (Thesis, Department of Government, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University, 2018), 96.
27 UNESCO defines “youth” as individuals falling within the age range of 15 to 24 years old. The age range may vary depending on the context as given in the African Youth Charter where “youth” means “every person between the ages of 15 and 35 years”. https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/7789-treaty-0033_-_african_youth_charter_e.pdf.
28 Aaron Azelton. “Defending Space for Citizen Participation,” Civic Update, August, 2009, https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/Civic_Update_Aug_2009_Defending_Space_0.pdf.
29 Ibid., 4–8.
30 John Paul Lederach, The Little Book of Conflict Transformation (Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 2003).
31 Chantana Banpasirichote Wungaeo “Assessing Tolerance and Implications on Conflicts and Democracy”, in Thailand Outlook Now and the Future, ed. Chiyan Chiyaporn (Bangkok, Thailand: Chulalongkorn Univeristy Press, 2018).
32 Wildan Dendara, “The Role of Youth Groups,” 96.
33 Chantana Wungaeo, Fareeda Panjor, and Rohanee Juenara, “Youth Political Space and Conflict Transformation in Southern Thailand” (Research No. SRI6211302, Thailand Science Research and Innovation, Bangkok, Thailand, 2023), i.
34 Ibid., i.
35 Office of the National Security Council, “The National Security Policy for the Southern Border Provinces 1999–2003” (Bangkok, Office of the National Security Council, 1999), 11, https://www.nsc.go.th/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/PolicySouth42to46.pdf (accessed March 28, 2023).
36 Ibid., 8.
37 Piyanart Bunnag, “Mr. Chuan Leekpai’s Government in His Second Term in Office and the Solution to the Problem of the Southernmost Provinces: A Case Study of the Policy Formulation and the Decision-making Process of the Cabinet,” Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 39, no. 2 (2013): 1–20.
38 National Reconciliation Commission (NRC), Report of the National Reconciliation Commission (NRC): Overcoming Violence Through the Power of Reconciliation (Bangkok, Thailand, National Reconciliation Commission (NRC), 2006), 5–7. http://library.nhrc.or.th/ulib/document/Fulltext/F03228_1.pdf (accessed March 28, 2023).
39 Office of the National Security Council, “The Administration and Development Policy of Thailand’s Southern Border Province 2012–2014” (Bangkok, Thailand, Office of the National Security Council, Bangkok, Office of the Prime Minister, 2012), 8, https://peaceresourcecollaborative.org/deep-south/policies-and-laws/nsc55# (accessed March 28, 2023).
40 Ibid., 14–15.
41 Youths and Civil Society Organizations, Focus Group Interview, February 17, 2020, Pattani, Thailand.
42 Office of the National Security Council, “The Administration and Development Policy of Thailand’s Southern Border Province 2017–2019” (Bangkok, Thailand: Office of the National Security Council, Office of the Prime Minister, 2017), 4, https://www.nsc.go.th (accessed March 28, 2023).
43 The Internal Security Operation Command (ISOC) 4th Region Forward is national security agency in the government structure legally based on the Internal Security Act of 2008, ISOC 4 led by the regional commanders of the Army. The director of ISOC 4 is the Commander of the Fourth Army in the Southern region.
44 Rungrawee Chalermsripinyorat, “Southern Border Provinces: 5 Buttons to Solve Problems”, BBC News Thai, BBC News, August 10, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/thai/thailand-49290602 (accessed March 29, 2023).
45 Duayjai Group, “Annual Report on Human Rights and Peace Process in Southern Border Provinces of Thailand 2022” (Bangkok, Thailand, Duayjai Group, 2022), 44.
46 Cross Cultural Foundation, Legal Library: Budu Bomb Case, CRCF, last modified September 25, 2018, https://crcfthailand.org/case-library/budu-bomb/(accessed March 30, 2023).
47 Cross Cultural Foundation, List of Activists and Students Subjected to Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation (SLAPP) in “Thailand: An Open Letter to the Secretary-General of the United Nations,” January 8, 2024 and the Member States of the United Nations Human Rights Council.
48 Naseurah, “Students from the Southern Border Provinces of Thailand Demand the Release of their Detained Friend,” Benar News, 2015, https://www.benarnews.org/thai/news/TH-Detain-04062015193311.html (accessed March 30, 2023).
49 The Southern Border Provinces Administration Centre or SBPAC was founded during 1970s as a civilian agency to coordinate the administration of Southern Border Provinces.
50 Deep South Watch, “Launching the Civil Society Council of the Southern Border: creating bargaining power from the area,” Deep South Watch, 2011, https://deepsouthwatch.org/th/node/2228 (accessed March 30, 2023).
51 “To create an environment conducive to dialogue in the pursuit of resolution and to provide assurance in entering into participatory and mutually beneficial processes, involving stakeholders with both gains and losses in the peacebuilding process.” https://peaceresourcecollaborative.org/deep-south/policies-and-laws/nsc55.
52 Office of the National Security Council, “Policy 2012–2014”, 17.
53 Southern Border Provinces Administrative Center, The Strategies for the Development of Southern Border Provinces 2020–2022 (Yala, Bangkok, Thailand: Southern Border Provinces Administrative Center, Office of the Prime Minister, 2020), 16.
54 Ibid., 4. The Royal Gazette, The National Strategy (2018–2036) (Office of the Secretary General of the National Security Council, Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council), https://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2561/A/082/T_0001.PDF (accessed March 28, 2023). The Secretariat of the Senate, 23 Master Plans Under the National Strategy (Committee for Monitoring, Advising, and Accelerating Country Reforms, and Formulating and Implementing National Strategies), https://www.nesdc.go.th/download/document/SAC/NS_SumPlanOct2018.pdf (accessed March 28, 2023). Office of the National Security Council, The National Security Policy 2015–2021 (Bangkok, Thailand: Office of the National Security Council, Office of the Prime Minister), https://www.nsc.go.th/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/policy58.pdf (accessed March 28, 2023). Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council, The 12th National Economic and Social Development Plan 2017–2021 (Thailand: Office of the Prime Minister). https://www.nesdc.go.th/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=6422. Royal Thai Government, “The Statement of the Policy of the General Prayuth Chan-Ocha in the Parliament on 26 July 2019”. https://www.thaigov.go.th/news/contents/details/72078. Budget Plan, “The Integrated Plan to Prevent and Solve Unrest in the Southern Border Provinces 2020–2022”. https://www.bb.go.th/topic3.php?catID=1267&gid=862&mid=545.
55 Youths and Civil Society Organizations, “Focus Group Interview”.
56 Wartani Reporter, Interview, March, 11, 2020, Pattani, Thailand.
57 PerMAS activist, Interview, August, 1, 2019, Pattani, Thailand.
58 Member of Bunga Raya Group Patani, Interview, August, 1, 2019, Pattani, Thailand.
59 “Tadika” (preschool or kindergarten) is the place teaching religious knowledge to local Muslim children. In Southern Thailand, where there has been a history of unrest and conflict Tadika is suspected to insurgency and civil unrest by Thai security forces, that are deployed to security measures in Tadika.
60 A former officer of the National Security Council, Interview, July 2, 2020, Pattani, Thailand.
61 Office of the National Security Council, “Policy 2017–2019”, 10.
62 Wungaeo, Panjor, and Juenara, “Youth Political Space and Conflict” 128.
63 Internal Security Operation Command Region4, The Plan for Strengthening Peace in the Southern Border Provinces 2016 (Bangkok, Thailand, ISOC4, 2016).
64 Section 44 of Temporary Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2557 granted the head of the NCPO wide-ranging powers to issue orders and take actions deemed necessary for national security, public order, and the suppression of activities that could undermine peace and stability.
65 The Southern Border Provinces Administrative and Development’s Advisory Council had a diverse composition, including representatives from local government organizations, mayors, village leaders, religious leaders, representatives of women’s groups, chambers of commerce, mass media, and other qualified individuals, totaling no more than 49 people. However, the advisory committee, following the directive of the head of the National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) No. 14/2559, comprises 60 members from: Nominations from the Internal Security Operations Command (ISOC) and the Southern Border Provinces Administrative Center (SBPAC), not exceeding 45 people. Nominations from the governors of the five southern border provinces, namely Narathiwat, Pattani, Yala, Satun, and Songkhla, with each province nominating no more than 2 individuals. Up to 5 qualified individuals nominated based on their expertise and qualifications.
66 Thai PBS, “The National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) No. 14/2559 Organizes Power in Southern Thailand for ISOC beyond SBPAC,” The Citizen.Plus Thai PBS, Thai PBS, last modified April 5, 2016, https://thecitizen.plus/node/10044.
67 Office of the National Security Council, “Policy 2017–2019”, 4–5.
68 Wungaeo, Panjor, and Juenara, “Youth Political Space and Conflict”128.
69 Internal Security Operation Command, Strategies of Internal Security Operation Command 2017–2021 (Bangkok, Thailand: Internal Security Operation Command, 2017), 38.
70 Region News, “Narathiwas Peace Council Organized Peace Panel in Thailand’s Deep South,” Region, Matichon Online, last modified June 26, 2019, https://www.matichon.co.th/region/news_1556297 (accessed March 31, 2023).
71 “Pondok” is the place of residnce for students or learners’ study on Islamic and cultural education. The term is commonly used in regions influenced by Malay or Indonesian culture, it can also be found in the southern regions of Thailand.
72 Southern Boder Provices Administrative Center, “The Strategies for Southern Boder Provices Development 2020–2022” (Yala, Thailand: Southern Boder Provices Administrative Center, 2019), 11–12.
73 Southern Boder Provices Administrative Center, “The Strategies for Southern Boder Provices Development 2020–2022”, 25–26.
74 The Fifth Operational Coordination Center, Internal Security Operations Command, “The plan to disseminate accurate information to support the resolution of issues in the southern border provinces,” ISOC5, last modified November 16, 2020, https://www.isoc5.net/videos/view/5lB7aSagJbs (accessed March 21, 2023).
75 Office of the National Security Council, “The Operational Plan for Problem Solving and Development of the Southern Border Provinces for the Fiscal Year 2016,” (Office of the National Security Council, 2016), 9.
76 The Fifth Operational Coordination Center, Internal Security Operations Command, “Peaceful of Southern Boundary’s Organization in Multicultural Society,” ISOC5, last modified December 22, 2017.
77 Thai Civil Rights and Investigative Journalism editorial team, “Report Indicated that ‘Visitting Tadika by Military, Causing Unconforable Feeling to Communites and There is no any Benefit Accept Haircutting’,”Investigative news, TCIJ, last modified January 26,2020 https://www.tcijthai.com/news/2020/26/scoop/9812 (accessed March 31 2023).
78 Prachatai, “Cross Cultural Foundation Asked Officials to Stop All Form of Military Measures in School,” Prachatai News, Prachatai, last modified February 1, 2019, https://prachatai.com/journal/2019/02/80832 (accessed March 31, 2023).
79 Prachatai, “Thai Studies Seminar: Eduation of Muslim in Thailand Deep South,” Special Report, Prachatai, last modified August 13, 2023, https://prachatai.com/journal/2017/08/72789 (accessed March 21, 2023).
80 Southern News Agency, “Three Fingers and White Ribons’ the Stories from Southern Boder Provices of Thailand,” Southern News Agency, Isara News Agency, last modified Month 19, August, 2020: https://www.isranews.org/article/south-news/south-slide/91292-fingers.html (accessed April 1, 2023).
81 Lecturer of Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus, Interview, May, 28, 2020, Pattani, Thailand.
82 Lectuer of Hadyai University, Interview, January 20, 2020, Songkla, Thailand.
83 Ibid.
84 Member of Merpati, Interview, January, 7, 2020, Pattani, Thailand.
85 Former Suspect in the Security Case, Interview, February 7, 2020, Yala, Thailand.
86 University student club at Prince of Songkla University, Pattani campus. Its objective is to promote peace and non-violence among university students.
87 Member of POSBO, Interview, February, 22, 2021, Pattani, Thailand.
88 Member of Luk Liang Group, Interview, January, 29, 2020, Yala, Thailand.
89 Member of Saiburi Looker, Interview, January 28, 2020, Pattani, Thailand.
90 Member of Future Forward Party, Interview, January, 6, 2020, Pattani, Thailand.
91 State official (Governor), Interview, August,19, 2020, Pattani, Thailand.
92 Security official from ISOC4, Interview, July 31, 2019, Pattani, Thailand.
93 Ibid.
94 Security official from ISOC4, Interview, June 4, 2021, Songkla, Thailand.
95 The political terms which shared among Malay nationalists according to international norms and non-violent means but the officials interpreted these terms as political agenda as a wish to tear apart the land.
96 Member of The Patani, Interview, July 17, 2020, Bangkok, Thailand.
97 Wungaeo, Panjor, and Juenara, “Youth Political Space and Conflict” 149, 152.
98 Mark Tamthai, Weaving Patani’s Dream Non-violently: An Analysis of Conversations for a New Imagination (Bangkok, Thailand: The Thailand Research Fund, 2020), 232–233.
99 Former Suspect in the Security Case, Interview, 2019, July 30, Pattani, Thailand.
100 Ibid.
101 Wungaeo, Panjor, and Juenara, “Youth Political Space and Conflict” 128.
102 The Peace Council was established under the authority of the Southern Border Provinces Administrative Centre (SBPAC) by Article 9 (10) of The Act on the Administration of Government in the Southern Border Provinces, B.E. 2553. This article stipulates the necessity of public participation from all sectors in addressing issues in the Southern Border Provinces. The strategic focus is on strengthening villages and communities, with the aim of collaborative efforts to build peace and well-being in the region.
103 Seminar on the Progress of Research Findings, 2020, February 17, Pattani, Thailand.
104 Seminar on the Progress of Research Findings, 2020, September 25, Pattani, Thailand.
105 Wungaeo, Panjor, and Juenara, “Youth Political Space and Conflict” 133.
106 Ibid.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Fareeda Panjor
Fareeda Panjor is a lecturer at the Center for Conflict Studies and Cultural Diversity, Institute for Peace Studies at the Prince of Songkla University, Thailand. She is currently a co-researcher on the Peace Survey in Thailand’s Deep South and conducting research on inclusive peacebuilding in the southern provinces. Fareeda also works with women’s civil society groups to empower women’s peace and security agenda in Thailand’s Deep South. She holds a master’s degree from the Department of International Relations, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand.