Introduction to section 2

KEYWORDS:

• Monitoring and information systems
• integrated river basin management
• monitoring
• ecosystem health monitoring
• adaptive policy frameworks
• advanced monitoring techniques

Introduction

Sustainable management of river basins, which are vital ecosystems underpinning diverse ecological functions and human activities, is facing increasing challenges from climate change and escalating water demands. Monitoring and information systems are critical in enhancing integrated river basin management by providing alerts for ecosystem degradation, supporting decision-making for land and water use, and promoting broad basin-level socioeconomic development. The 21st century has witnessed significant developments in monitoring and information systems methodologies for river basins. Traditional methods have evolved into sophisticated techniques offering comprehensive surveillance of land use, water availability and water use, surface water storage (reservoirs) and aquifers, water quality, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and extreme events (e.g., droughts, floods, cold waves, and heat waves). The integration of modern technologies like satellite imagery, drones, and real-time sensor networks has revolutionized data collection, enabling more accurate and efficient monitoring. Recent literature focuses on the application of artificial intelligence and machine learning in predictive analytics, as well as the utilization of Big Data in exploring river basin management strategies and addressing the complexities of river basin dynamics (Kumar et al., 2023; Richards et al., 2023; Tiyasha et al., 2020).

Monitoring and information systems provide strong technical support for integrated river basin management. In particular, the importance of water quality monitoring cannot be overstated, with automated sensors offering modern methods for continuous surveillance, crucial for maintaining river ecosystem health and ensuring safety for human use. Similarly, the monitoring of biodiversity, particularly in wetlands, greatly benefits from digital basin technologies and remote sensing, which is vital for the conservation of basin ecosystems. Additionally, monitoring the occurrences and effects of climate change on river basins is becoming essential, including assessing changes in water availability, flow patterns, and the occurrence of extreme weather events and the responses from both natural and human systems.

Traditional river basin monitoring and information systems have been more attuned to natural systems than human systems, whereas a holistic approach to integrated river basin management has pushed a growing need to implement monitoring and information systems for the human dimension of river basins (Cai et al., 2014), including land and water use behaviours, decision-making priorities, and willingness to pay for ecosystem restoration. This effort is facilitated by participatory monitoring, stakeholder and community surveys, and social sensing (Galesic et al., 2021), regarding (1) societal impacts on income, health, and environment from resource stress and weather and climate disasters; (2) human dependencies and alteration to ecosystem services provided by river basins; and (3) coordinated resources development and sharing in transboundary basins.

This introductory paper is composed of two parts. The first part engages with the seven papers on monitoring and information systems included in this special issue, offering a detailed discussion of each. The second part explores recent advancements in monitoring techniques and the emerging monitoring and information systems needs for addressing missing information and new challenges in river basin management. In the end, the future need for more effective monitoring and information systems is discussed along with adaptive policy frameworks, increased public awareness, education programmes, and the significance of international cooperation, especially for transboundary river basins.

Discussion of the monitoring and information systems papers in this issue

The seven monitoring and information systems papers in this special issue, drawn from diverse global contexts, weave a comprehensive narrative on monitoring and information systems for river basin and water resource management.

In Brazil’s intricate network of river basins, Marques et al. (2024, this issue) propose a forward-thinking model, intertwining watershed action plans with raw water charging systems to address the escalating demands on water resources and the challenges of integrating economic instruments into water management. The decision support model simulates the dual feedback process between watershed plans and water price mechanisms and analyses long-term financial sustainability. Their methodology is executed in three steps: reviewing the integration of watershed plans and water pricing in France and Brazil, developing a decision support tool named FAISCA to simulate water pricing based on watershed action plans, and applying FAISCA to the Piracicaba–Capivari–Jundiaí Basins. Their work contributes to operationalizing the integration between water charge policies and watershed plans, while also providing support for financial engineering for the implementation of the watershed plan’s actions with a short- and long-term perspective. The proposed framework, beyond its application in the Piracicaba–Capiravi–Jundiaí Basins, stands as a progressive blueprint for financial sustainability in basin water management by marrying economic tools with environmental foresight. This paper fosters long-term viability, ensuring that vital water management and water quality improvement actions are financially supported through a judicious blend of user-polluter pays principles and other innovative funding sources.

For the Kapingazi River Basin of Kenya, Karimi et al. (2024, this issue) conducted a study to evaluate the local population’s willingness to pay for improving water service provision. Employing a cross-sectional approach, the research team gathered both qualitative and quantitative data from a sample of 100 respondents. The data-collection methods included household questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. By using logistic regression, the study analysed the factors influencing willingness to pay for improvements in water quality and quantity. The findings revealed that 67% of the respondents were willing to pay for improved water services, underscoring the intrinsic value they place on ecosystem services. Their willingness to pay for enhanced water quality and quantity also echoes a broader recognition of the critical role that these services play in sustaining and elevating living standards through access to clean water and reliable irrigation. This pattern of community-driven financial participation proposes a synergistic model, where environmental sustainability and economic development coalesce, benefiting all stakeholders involved.

The pervasive challenge of climate change, intricately interwoven with critical river basin management issues globally, necessitates a coordinated approach to understand and mitigate its effects on hydrological systems and water resource utilization. In this vein, Costa and Lopes conducted a case study on the Portuguese Douro International Basin, anticipating significant alterations in water availability, and forecasting profound consequences for hydroelectric power generation and various dependent industries. The study simulated temperature and precipitation in the Douro region from 1900 to 2100 based on the CMIP5 ensemble data set and anomalies for the period 1979–2015. Additionally, they examined changes in conventional water storage volume in Portuguese dams from 1991 to 2022, using data from Portugal’s National Integrated Water Resources System. Their research not only sheds light on the implications of climate change but also introduces a versatile and practical approach that can be applied across various geographical areas to address these emerging challenges. It presents a narrative of proactive anticipation and preparedness, urging the adoption of adaptive measures that are both durable and agile, to navigate the region’s transition towards a warmer and potentially drier future.

Technological acumen and data stewardship are central themes for water and land management in river basins. Hartwig et al. (2024, this issue) have developed the Columbia Basin Water Monitoring Framework, a comprehensive approach aimed at assessing the impacts of climate change on freshwater resources in the Canadian Columbia Basin. This framework facilitates collaboration among stakeholders and prioritizes monitoring efforts to devise localized water management solutions. It integrates community priorities into its design and leverages geospatial analysis for effective watershed stratification and identifies data gaps within each area of interest. A key to the the Columbia Basin Water Monitoring Framework’s success is its commitment to extensive community engagement. By organizing community meetings, conducting online surveys, and creating interactive web maps, the framework ensures that local knowledge is captured, concerns are addressed, and collaborative efforts are fostered. This integrated approach not only enhances the framework’s effectiveness in monitoring but also strengthens community involvement in sustainable water management. The establishment of the Columbia Basin Water Monitoring Framework exemplifies a commitment to transparency and inclusivity in environmental governance, leveraging open-source data to inform and empower stakeholders at all involvement levels.

Soil erosion and pollution discharge are widespread threads in basins around the world, necessitating ongoing conservation efforts. Stötter et al. (2024, this issue) offer a compelling case study of the Rhine River Basin in Europe, showcasing the concerted efforts in the basin to reduce micropollutants and illustrating the potential of international cooperation in river basin water. The study evaluates the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine’s effort on a monitoring and assessment system regarding the reduction of micropollutants. Methodologically, the study strategically chose a total of 58 indicator substances from a dynamic list for wastewater treatment plants, industry, and agriculture across 48 monitoring sites, supplemented by a programme for 50 suspended matter samples. The evaluation process includes load calculations for wastewater treatment plants and industry, along with the assessments of concentrations and exceedance for agriculture. The study emphasizes the importance of data-driven evaluation systems in achieving environmental protection goals and the ongoing need to adapt and respond to emerging challenges in water quality management. In particular, the ‘Rhine 2040’ programme, spearheaded by the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, illustrates how strategic, cross-border collaboration can yield positive outcomes for water quality, benefiting not just individual nations but entire ecosystems.

Duester et al. (2024, this issue) follow with a comprehensive review of the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine’s Rhine Measuring Programme Chemistry, from its inception in 1953 to its current contributions to monitoring chemical pollutants in the Rhine River, culminating in recommendations for future actions. The study addresses how well the programme is prepared to deliver the information needed to protect the ecosystem of Rhine. The paper highlights the milestones of the long-term monitoring programme (technical and chemical) and outlines the programme’s adaptation to modern environmental challenges, including the recent focus on micropollutants and the goal for their reduction by 2040. The authors delve into the technical advancements in pollution monitoring, the importance of data integrity over decades, and future challenges posed by climate change. They also underscore the critical need for ongoing international collaboration, enhanced data management, and the adoption of cutting-edge technologies to ensure the Rhine’s water quality in the face of evolving environmental threats. The authors call ‘to deliver the best possible comprehensive, fast and reliable data to the public and the decision makers’, which should also be promoted for other river basins, especially the international ones.

Another example of monitoring and information systems development for an international river basin is provided by Pansera et al. (2024, this issue) The International Meuse Commission was established in 2002 by signing the International Meuse Agreement (Ghent Agreement) to achieve sustainable management of the Meuse River Basin District, involving the Walloon Region, the Netherlands, France, Germany, the Flemish Region, the Brussels-Capital Region, Belgium and Luxembourg. This paper outlines the International Meuse Commission’s efforts over the past 20 years in managing the Meuse River Basin, covering the establishment of a homogeneous measurement network for monitoring water quality, the implementation of a warning and alert system for accidental pollution, the development of a master plan for migratory fishes to improve fish migration and stocking, and the creation of a joint low water monitoring network to address climate change impacts. These initiatives demonstrate the International Meuse Commission’s commitment to sustainable and integrated water management, including water quality improvement, ecological restoration, and climate adaptation strategies.

In summary, these papers reveal a shared understanding of the role of monitoring and information systems, the required improvement of existing systems, and the need for new systems, based on experiences and perspectives of various basins around the world. They emphasize the significance of incorporating monitoring practices into river basin management as a foundational step towards achieving integrated river basin management. Diligent observation and data analysis can be used to mitigate the risks posed to and by water resources. Furthermore, the integration of monitoring systems supports the development of adaptive management strategies that are responsive to environmental changes and societal needs. The highlighted case studies and discussions within this collection serve as a testament to the vital role of monitoring river basin management.

Furthermore, these papers collectively shed light on the interplay between ecological sustainability, economic feasibility, institutional robustness, financial sustainability, and community responsibility in monitoring, and also offer decision support information for achieving water security via collaborative and adaptive measures. They underscore the necessity of a multidimensional approach that embraces technological innovation, stakeholder engagement, and policy development to navigate the complexities of water management in an era marked by rapid environmental and societal changes. As we integrate these insights into practices, the path towards a sustainable and secure water future can become increasingly clear, marked by resilience, collaboration, and a deep commitment to environmental stewardship.

Monitoring technologies and information systems for river basin management

The deployment of advanced monitoring technologies plays a pivotal role in comprehensively understanding and sustainably managing the complexity of river basins. Various tools and methods have been employed for real-time data transmission and analysis and information delivery, and they collectively contribute to a more nuanced understanding of river basin dynamics and promote a holistic approach to managing the coupled natural and human systems of river basins. Effective management of river basins relies heavily on advanced monitoring methods. These methods encompass a variety of technologies and analytical tools, each playing a crucial role in gathering and interpreting data that informs sustainable management strategies. We categorize the variety of technologies for river basin management into two aspects: biophysical systems and human systems. This distinction allows for a focused approach in addressing both the natural and societal aspects of river basin management, ensuring a comprehensive understanding and effective stewardship of river basins. Here we provide a brief overview of those tools and methods.

Advanced remote sensing applications

Utilizing hyperspectral imaging and LiDAR for detailed assessments of (a) hydrological processes such as streamflow, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, surface water storage, and groundwater (using GRACE – Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment; ‘Satellite Data and Digital Twin Models to support River Basin Management’, 2023); (b) topography, i.e., digital elevation models (Okolie & Smit, 2022); and (c) ecosystem health, e.g., using thermal imaging for water temperature profiles (Torgersen et al., 2001).

These technologies allow for the detection of subtle changes in river basins that may indicate ecological shifts or water balance alterations. Most recently, NASA released its first global survey of Earth’s surface water, namely SWOT, which provides data for water elevation and discharge (spatial altimetry), clean air and water, extreme events, and long-term environmental changes (Biancamaria et al., 2016). Notably, some low-cost or free data sets and technologies have been applied in data-poor regions, especially in developing countries, where in-situ observations are limited (Sheffield et al., 2018), e.g., for geometrical information of riverbed and floodplain in south-west Nigeria (Adewole Adedayo & Eludoyin Adebayo, 2019); for flood monitoring and mapping in Namibia (De Groeve, 2010).

The development and use of high-resolution satellite imagery, combined with advanced mapping technologies, has supported the development of digital basins with strong analysis capabilities for a more nuanced understanding of land use changes, water flow patterns, and overall ecological health in global river systems. These developments have facilitated comprehensive surveillance of river basins, precise environmental monitoring, and effective management strategy development (Wu et al., 2023).

Integration of internet of things with sensor networks

Internet of things technologies have been integrated with networks of environmental sensors for comprehensive river basin monitoring. This integration facilitates the tracking of numerous parameters, such as water quality indicators (Singh et al., 2022; Vasudevan & Baskaran, 2021), across vast and varied terrains in a river basin. Especially, internet of things and sensor networks have been used to establish smart water management in water uses, such as the precision irrigation domain (‘Smart Water Management Platform’, 2022). The adoption of smart metres and sensors for real-time data collection has revolutionized real-time water systems operation, allowing for timely monitoring and operational decision-making, e.g., an internet of things-based wireless sensor network developed for Colima basin, Mexico was tested against three tropical storm events in 2019, demonstrating its robustness in collecting real-time hydrometeorological information during extreme weather conditions (Mendoza-Cano et al., 2021). In addition, internet of things and automated sensor networks provide a modern method for continuous water quality monitoring, enabling timely responses to pollution incidents (Lakshmikantha et al., 2021; Mukta et al., 2019. For example, a smart water quality monitoring system was developed for Fiji to vigorously examine drinking water quality in town and city as well as the rivers, creeks and shoreline (Prasad et al., 2015).

Crowdsourcing

Crowdsourcing through community involvement and citizen science initiatives is becoming an effective method in data collection for river basin management. This approach goes beyond traditional data collection by engaging the public actively in the monitoring process, showing significant opportunity in enhancing data resolution both spatially and temporally. This approach engages citizens in various aspects of river basin management, including water level monitoring (Weeser et al., 2021), climate analysis (Muller et al., 2015), temperature measurement (Meier et al., 2017), hydrological variables (Buytaert et al., 2014), and flood modelling (Assumpção et al., 2018). Moreover, it fosters stakeholder engagement in integrated river basin management (Lim et al., 2022). Examples include the use of crowdsourcing in the Mazoe Pilot basin, Zimbabwe (Sithole, 2001) and the governance of the Songkhla Lake Basin in Thailand (Darnswadi et al., 2015). Moreover, Crowdsourcing is a cost-effective strategy that complements traditional data collection methods (Zheng et al., 2018).

Drones

Drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles use non-contact gauging and unmanned aerial vehicle sensors and imagery to revolutionize river basin monitoring with their ability to capture high-resolution geographic data (Acharya et al., 2021). They are key to accurately measuring water levels in rivers and lakes (Bandini et al., 2017); their use in photogrammetry and remote sensing enhances terrain analysis for comprehensive basin assessments (Colomina & Molina, 2014). In particular, drones support conservation in protected areas by monitoring ecological changes with minimal disturbance (Jiménez López & Mulero-Pázmány, 2019). Unmanned aerial vehicles are particularly useful in the delineation of flood-prone areas (Şerban et al., 2016), estimation of flood volume and extent (Escobar Villanueva et al., 2019), flood risk modelling (Coveney & Roberts, 2017), assessing the impact of flooding (Langhammer & Vacková, 2018), and responding to flood emergencies (Salmoral et al., 2020).

Environmental DNA analysis

Environmental monitoring based on new scientific and technical advancements allows us to assess biodiversity via environmental DNA analysis. Environmental DNA sampling techniques have been used to detect and monitor biodiversity within aquatic ecosystems in river basins. This non-invasive method provides insights into the presence and distribution of species, including those that are elusive or endangered, thereby informing conservation strategies (Sahu et al., 2023). Environmental DNA has been applied in both developed and developing countries. For example, environmental DNA sampling campaigns were organized across 25 UNESCO World Heritage marine sites between September 2022 and April 2023 (UNESCO, 2023; World Heritage Marine Programme, 2024).

Isotope hydrology techniques

Stable and radioactive isotopes have been applied for many years to trace the sources and movement of water and pollutants within a river basin. These techniques help in understanding hydrological processes and the sources of water, which is valuable for managing water resources and protecting against contamination (International Atomic Energy, 2002). The techniques primarily used in developed countries have been extended to developing countries in recent decades. For example, the importance of an isotope hydrology technique was demonstrated for irrigation return flow estimates and pollution hazard alerts in Zimbabwe (Verhagen, 2003).

Geographic information systems

Geographic information systems technology has been widely utilized for spatial analysis and mapping, integrating data from remote sensing and ground monitoring to offer insights into hazard management, water resource distribution, water quantity and quality changes, ecosystem health, etc. For example, geographic information systems along with hydrological models was applied to the Lijiang River Basin in southern China for flood forecasting, flood risk assessment, and mitigation strategy development (Li et al., 2023), and for water resources vulnerability assessment in the Dong Nai River Basin, Vietnam (Hung et al., 2022).

Machine learning and artifical intelligence-enhanced monitoring and information systems

Machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence models have been used to enhance remote sensing and on-the-ground sensors and information systems for basin management (Ahmed et al., 2024), especially for checking data inconsistencies and interpolating missing data (Zhou, 2020); revealing patterns and trends that may not be immediately apparent (Ahmed et al., 2024; Amari, 1972; Wunsch et al., 2022); and aiding in predictive analytics on water quantity and quality and ecosystem health (Akbarian et al., 2023; Dehghani et al., 2023).

Data collection and analysis methods for human systems

Data collection and analysis methods for human systems adopt methods and tools that have been traditionally used in social science studies. Some major methods are as follows.

Surveys serve as a crucial link between community perceptions and technical data, ensuring that management approaches are grounded in the realities of those who are directly impacted by river basin policies. Integrating surveys with socioeconomic models can enrich our understanding of survey results. Surveys are often used to assess stakeholders’ willingness to pay for environmental and ecosystem services (Jiang et al., 2019) and their responses to climate variability and climate change (Syahputra et al., 2022).

Focus groups are often utilized to supplement and validate data collected by surveys or monitoring tools such as remote sensing and sensor networks. This method enhances community engagement and acceptance, ensuring that management strategies are responsive to the nuanced needs and opinions of local populations or community representatives. An example of organizing focus groups to discuss local concerns and suggestions in river basin management can be seen in the Basin Management Action Plans by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (Basin Management Action Plans, 2024). These plans involve various river basins such as the Indian River Lagoon and the Manatee River Basin. The Basin Management Action Plans include interactive story maps and final orders that reflect stakeholder engagement, showcasing how focus groups contribute to understanding and addressing local water management challenges. This approach exemplifies the integration of local insights into broader river basin management strategies.

Another method to obtain data on human subjects is conducting interviews with stakeholders such as local, regional, or national government agencies, non-governmental organizations, rural community leaders, and industry representatives. Interviews with stakeholders and the public provide a diversity of perspectives, for example, on water resource management, climate change adaptation strategies, and biodiversity conservation (e.g., Nudelman & Odell, 2006).

Both focus groups and interviews in the form of direct interactions with stakeholders are essential for incorporating a broad range of socioeconomic considerations into river basin management strategies, ensuring that policies are reflective of the complex interplay between environmental and human systems, and among multiple areas, communities, or sectors (Den Haan et al., 2019).

In addition, integrating community-sourced data into digital basins via crowdsourcing (see above) significantly enhances the quality and extent of participation in river basin monitoring. Such involvement is particularly effective in the realms of water quality monitoring and ecological conservation. By empowering local communities, this approach not only enriches the data pool but also raises awareness and encourages active participation in sustainable river basin management (Zheng et al., 2018).

Finally, establishing participatory monitoring programmes is essential for involving local communities directly in river basin management activities (Carr, 2015; Verbrugge et al., 2017). These programmes enable the collection of valuable ground-level data, foster community engagement, and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of basin management complexities. This method is especially valuable in areas such as biodiversity conservation and water quality monitoring, where local knowledge and observations offer significant insights into the health and changes within river ecosystems (Benson et al., 2014).

Monitoring and information systems for integrated river basin management has been used for many purposes. The integration of advanced hydrologic and hydraulic modelling with observational data has emerged as a cornerstone in the modern management of river basins, particularly in predicting and managing drought and flood risks and water flow patterns and advancing our ability to understand and respond to complex river dynamics, e.g., a study conducted for Sakarya River Basin in Turkey (Yaykıran et al., 2019). Monitoring and information systems also contributes to Big Data Analytics for comprehensive monitoring and management strategies. Integrating big data with monitoring and information systems will facilitate the identification of environmental issues, development trends, and opportunities for sustainable management by the transformation of raw data into meaningful insights. For example, such Big Data analytics was developed for the Ramotswa aquifer shared between South Africa and Botswana (Ibrahim et al., 2022).

Furthermore, monitoring and information systems for integrated river basin management has advanced the developments in eco-friendly and sustainable river management practices (Giakoumis & Voulvoulis, 2018), future trends in river basin management considering climate change and increasing water demand (Van Metre et al., 2020), the establishment of public awareness and education in river basin conservation efforts (Marshall & Duram, 2017), and international cooperation and data sharing for transboundary river basins (Khoshnoodmotlagh et al., 2020).

Perspectives

Monitoring and information systems has become a pivotal element in addressing the challenges in complex river basin management globally. By focusing on the continuous observation and assessment of water quality, quantity, and ecosystem health within river basins, we can better understand the impacts of human activities, climate change, and extreme events on water resources, and explore sustainable basin management strategies. Emerging technologies, such as advanced remote sensing, internet of things-enabled sensor networks, machine learning, drones, etc. are set to transform the landscape of river basin monitoring. The integration of these technologies will provide more comprehensive, real-time data. This will enable more accurate assessments of water quality, land-use impacts, and ecological health, allowing for a deeper understanding of river basin conditions, supporting informed decision-making and sustainable management practices, and facilitating international cooperation and data sharing to address transboundary water challenges.

This introduction along with the seven monitoring and information systems papers in this section emphasizes the importance of integrating biophysical and human systems in monitoring approaches. This holistic perspective, blending technical data with socioeconomic and community-focused methods, is important to develop inclusive and equitable management strategies, enabling a comprehensive perspective vital for developing strategies that are equitable and inclusive for the various stakeholders involved.

The ever-evolving landscape of river basin management, shaped by climate change and technological progress, necessitates adaptive policies, heightened public awareness, and robust international cooperation for transboundary basins. To ensure that river basin management remains effective, responsive, and sustainable, future strategies must rely on our continued innovation in monitoring practices, embracing cutting-edge technologies, and fostering collaborative approaches. This path will enable us to better protect and sustainably manage our essential water resources for the benefit of present and future generations.

Looking ahead, adaptive policy frameworks should be developed to integrate the latest advancements in monitoring tools and data analysis techniques, prompt data sharing among the various stakeholder communities, and ensure that regulatory standards keep pace with technological progress. In particular, policies strongly influence the monitoring and evaluation of socioecological systems of basins (Waylen et al., 2019).

Monitoring and information systems is important for enhancing public awareness of the status of river basin conservation; meanwhile, enhanced education programmes will be helpful to motivate the public and stakeholders to have a more active role in basin monitoring, especially the human subjects of a basin, e.g., via citizen science projects, crowdsourcing, and internet of things. This will also be vital for fostering a generation that is more aware and involved in environmental stewardship (Mody, 2004); an example is provided for the Danube River Basin (Irvine et al., 2016).

In addition, there is a pressing need for data sharing, as part of international cooperation for transboundary river basin management (Khoshnoodmotlagh et al., 2020). Establishing data-sharing agreements and joint monitoring programmes is crucial for managing the river basins effectively and resolving potential conflicts by working towards common environmental standards and conservation goals (Zeitoun et al., 2013). Monitoring and information systems with contributions from and shared by all riparian countries will facilitate international cooperation and ensure equitable and sustainable use of shared water resources.