Hydrogen production in Australia from renewable energy: no doubt green and clean, but is it mean?

Abstract

The energy transition necessitates hydrogen generation to meet current energy needs. Low-carbon hydrogen (green hydrogen from renewable energy, and blue hydrogen from gas with CO₂ removal and storage) is touted as a replacement, with most authors recognising the ‘green’ credentials of hydrogen. However, this paper examines the impact of hydrogen generation on water resources in the driest inhabited country on Earth – Australia. After analysing water use, the paper then undertakes a detailed analysis of the Australian Certificate of Origin Scheme. The paper concludes that competition over water will need to be considered in both project approvals and certification schemes.

Keywords:

• green hydrogen
• blue hydrogen
• hydrogen regulation
• hydrogen certification scheme
• guarantee of origin
• water use
• hydrogen and water
• Australian hydrogen industry
• low-carbon hydrogen

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge that part of this paper is based on a short article previously published in the Australian Environment Review: Kerryn Brent, ‘Regulating Australia’s Green Hydrogen Industry – Objective and Challenges’ (2022) 36(6) Australian Environment Review 130. Permission has been granted from the Australian Environment Review to use the previous article.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1 Tina Soliman-Hunter and Madeline Taylor, ‘Long-Term and Short-Term Liquid Fuel Security in Australia – What Role for the Great Australian Bight?’ (2021) 157 Energy Policy, 1–13

2 For a consideration of COVID-19 on energy supply chains in Australia see Tina Soliman-Hunter, ‘Covid-19 and the Shift towards Net-Zero Emissions in Australia: Accelerating the Energy Transition’ (2021) 19(5) OGEL online

3 Australian Labor Party, ALP National Platform: As Adopted at the 2021 Special Platform Conference (ALP 2021) <www.alp.org.au/2021nationalplatform>

4 Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW), National Energy Transformation Partnership (2022) <www.energy.gov.au/government-priorities/energy-and-climate-change-ministerial-council/priorities/national-energy-transformation-partnership>

5 Australia’s Nationally Determined Contribution: Communication 2022 <https://unfccc.int/documents/510662>

6 Clean energy instruments include a renewable energy target (RET) and the Australian Carbon Credit Unit (ACCUs) system, administered under the Clean Energy Regulator.

7 Australian Government – Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, ‘Australia’s Climate Change Strategies’ <www.dcceew.gov.au/climate-change/strategies>

8 Pete David and Stephen McMaugh, Development of Australia’s Hydrogen Industry 2000 to 2021: A Chronology (2022) Australian Parliamentary Library Research Paper Series 2022–23 (18 November 2022) <https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/library/prspub/8883083/upload_binary/8883083.pdf>, 2–4

9 Sam Bruce and others, ‘National Hydrogen Roadmap: Pathways to an Economically Sustainable Hydrogen Industry in Australia’ (2018) <www.csiro.au/en/Do-business/Futures/Reports/Energy-and-Resources/Hydrogen-Roadmap>

10 A list of reports and funding can be found in Pete David and Stephen McMaugh, Development of Australia’s Hydrogen Industry 2000 to 2021: A Chronology (2022) Australian Parliamentary Library Research Paper Series 2022–23 (18 November 2022) <https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/library/prspub/8883083/upload_binary/8883083.pdf>, 4

11 Angus Taylor, Minister for Energy, Joint Ministerial Statement, Hydrogen (19 December 2028) <https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20190208172408/http:/www.coagenergycouncil.gov.au/sites/prod.energycouncil/files/publications/documents/DIIS%20-%20Hydrogen%20Joint%20Ministerial%20Statement%20-%2020181219.pdf>

12 Released after discussion and issues papers sought feedback from industry and other stakeholders. See COAG Energy Council, ‘National Hydrogen Strategy: Request for Information – Discussion Paper’ <www.atse.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/SUB-2019-03-28-National-Hydrogen-Strategy-Discussion-Paper-Response-FINAL.pdf>; Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources, ‘National Hydrogen Strategy Issues Papers: Have Your Say’ <www.dcceew.gov.au/about/news/national-hydrogen-strategy-issues-papers-have-your-say>

13 See Investment Territory, Middle Arm Sustainable Development Precinct (2022) <https://invest.nt.gov.au/investment-opportunities/middle-arm-sustainable-development-precinct>

14 IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2022 (2022) <www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2022>, 7

15 Ibid, 71

16 Water Act 2007 (Cth)

17 Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth)

18 See Paul Kildea and George Williams, ‘The Constitution and the Management of Water in Australia’s Rivers’ (2010) 32(4) The Sydney Law Review 595–616, <https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/agispt.20112034>

19 The exception to this is ‘white’ or ‘gold’ hydrogen, which is produced by natural processes underground, and has been found in conjunction with other mineral deposits such as oil and gas. Interest in these natural sources of hydrogen is comparatively recent, and it is unclear the extent to which it can be commercially extracted and exploited. For this reason, we do not consider them further in this article. See <www.csiro.au/en/news/all/articles/2023/july/natural-hydrogen>; <www.science.org/content/article/hidden-hydrogen-earth-may-hold-vast-stores-renewable-carbon-free-fuel>

20 CSIRO, Green, blue, brown: the colours of hydrogen explained (2023) <https://blog.csiro.au/green-blue-brown-hydrogen-explained/>

21 eg Brown hydrogen is being produced at AGL’s Loy Yang site in Victoria’s LaTrobe Valley for export, with the first liquid hydrogen from this project shipped to Japan in February 2022. See <www.austrade.gov.au/international/invest/investor-updates/australia-exports-world-s-first-shipment-of-liquified-hydrogen-to-japan#:~:text=Australia%20is%20sending%20the%20world's,sea%20to%20an%20international%20market>

22 EIA, Hydrogen explained: Production of hydrogen (2022) <www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrogen/production-of-hydrogen.php#:~:text=To%20produce%20hydrogen%2C%20it%20must,electrolysis%20(splitting%20water%20with%20electricity>

23 Thomas Longden and others, ‘“Clean” Hydrogen? An Analysis of the Emissions and Costs of Fossil Fuel Based Versus Renewable Electricity-Based Hydrogen’ (2021) <www.anu.edu.au/files/document-collection/ZCWP02-21%20Clean%20hydrogen%20emissions%20and%20costs_1_1.pdf> at 8

24 Robert Howarth and Mark Z Jacobson, ‘How Green Is Blue Hydrogen?’ (2021) 9 Energy, Science and Engineering 1676, at 1678

25 Bruce and others (n 9) 20

26 See Rebecca R Beswick, Alexandra M Oliveira and Yushan Yan, ‘Does the Green Hydrogen Economy Have a Water Problem?’ (2021) 6(9) ACS Energy Lett 3167, at 3168 <https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsenergylett.1c01375>

27 See eg Howarth and Jacobson (n 24); Longden and others, ‘“Clean” Hydrogen? An Analysis’ (n 23)

28 Sonja van Renssen, ‘The Hydrogen Solution?’ (2020) 10 Nature Climate Change 799 <https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0891-0>; Chevron’s CCS project as part of its Gorgon gas facility in WA is an example of significant technological and other implementation issues associated with commercial-scale CCS. See <www.abc.net.au/news/science/2019-07-17/chevron-gorgon-gas-sequestration-mismanagement/11309076>

29 van Renssen (n 28); Chevron’s CCS project as part of its Gorgon gas facility in WA is an example of significant technological and other implementation issues associated with commercial-scale CCS. <www.abc.net.au/news/science/2019-07-17/chevron-gorgon-gas-sequestration-mismanagement/11309076>

30 Thomas Longden and others, ‘“Clean” Hydrogen? – Comparing the Emissions and Costs of Fossil Fuel Versus Renewable Electricity-Based Hydrogen’ (2022) 306 (Part B) Applied Energy 118145, 9–10

31 Howarth and Jacobson (n 24), 1677

32 Bruce and others (n 9)

33 Thomas Longden and others, ‘“Clean” Hydrogen? – Comparing’ (n 30)

34 See Ahmed I Osman and others, ‘Hydrogen Production, Storage, Utilisation and Environmental Impacts: A Review’ (2022) 20 Environmental Chemistry Letters 153, at 156

35 Bruce and others (n 9) 12

36 Osman and others (n 34) 156

37 Paris Agreement, opened for signature 12 December 2015 [2016] ATS 24 (entered into force 4 November 2016) (Paris Agreement) art 2 as noted by recent reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the United Nations Environment Programme. See Richard P. Allan and others, Summary for Policymakers: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2021) SPM 17 B.1; and United Nations Environment Programme, Emissions Gap Report 2021 <www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2021> respectively

38 Paris Agreement, opened for signature 12 December 2015 [2016] ATS 24 (entered into force 4 November 2016) (Paris Agreement) art 2 as noted by recent reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the United Nations Environment Programme. See Richard P Allan and others, Summary for Policymakers: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2021) SPM 17 B.1 and United Nations Environment Programme, Emissions Gap Report 2021 www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2021, respectively. It is also important to note that, in addition to rapid and significant emission reduction from source, carbon dioxide needs to be drawn directly from the atmosphere and stored in land- or ocean-based sinks to produce negative emissions. See IPCC Working Group III Report Summary for Policymakers at C.3, C.11 <www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-3/>

39 Australia’s Nationally Determined Contribution Update October 2021 <www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Australia%20First/Australia%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contribution%20Update%20October%202021%20WEB.pdf>

40 Australia’s Nationally Determined Contribution Update October 2021 (n 39)

41 James Bowen, ‘Australia’s Potential as a “Green” Hydrogen Superpower’ (The Interpreter, Lowy Institute, 2 September 2021) <www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/australia-s-potential-green-hydrogen-superpower>

42 International Renewable Energy Agency, Green Hydrogen: A Guide to Policymaking (2020) 10 <www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2020/Nov/IRENA_Green_hydrogen_policy_2020.pdf>; Commonwealth of Australia, Australia's National Hydrogen Strategy Australian Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2019) <https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/australias-national-hydrogen-strategy.pdf>, 6

43 See James Bowen, ‘Fuelling Cooperation: The Indo-Pacific Hydrogen Transformation’ (Perth USAsia Centre, August 2021) <https://perthusasia.edu.au/getattachment/Our-Work/FUELLING-COOPERATION-THE-INDO-PACIFIC-HYDROGEN-TR/PU-217-Hydrog-2pg-Summ_2.pdf.aspx?lang=en-AU>

44 ‘Hydrogen’ (Geoscience Australia, n.d.) <www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/hydrogen#heading-3>

45 AJ Feitz, E Tenthorey and RA Coghlan, ‘Prospective Hydrogen Production Regions of Australia’ (Geoscience Australia, 2019) <https://ecat.ga.gov.au/geonetwork/srv/eng/catalog.search#/metadata/130930>

46 Joshua S Hill, ‘Australia’s First Hydrogen Shipment – Why It’s Important and Why There’s So Far to Go’ (25 January 2022) <https://reneweconomy.com.au/australias-first-hydrogen-shipment-why-its-important-and-why-theres-so-far-to-go/>

47 Reuters, ‘China Sets Green Hydrogen Target for 2025, Eyes Widespread Use’ (24 March 2022) <www.reuters.com/world/china/china-produce-100000-200000-t-green-hydrogen-annually-by-2025-2022-03-23/>

48 Rachel Pupazzoni, ‘Australian Hydrogen in Demand as South Korean Manufacturers Look to Reach Renewable Energy Target by 2050’ (15 May 2023) <www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-15/south-korea-hydrogen-clean-energy-manufacturing-australia/102345294>

49 International Energy Agency, Korea Hydrogen Economy Roadmap 2040 (14 September 2020)

50 International Energy Agency, Global Hydrogen Review 2022 (2022) 168

51 Commonwealth of Australia, ‘Liquid Fuel Security Review – Interim Report’ Australian Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2019) 3 <www.energy.gov.au/sites/default/files/liquid-fuel-security-review-interim-report.pdf>

52 Commonwealth of Australia, ‘Liquid Fuel Security Review – Interim Report’ Australian Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2019) 3 <www.energy.gov.au/sites/default/files/liquid-fuel-security-review-interim-report.pdf> 15

53 See Stephanie Borys, ‘AdBlue Shortage Appears to be Nearing End as Millions of Litres of Diesel Fluid Produced Locally’ (ABC News, 24 January 2021) <www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-24/australian-adblue-produduction-increases-after-shortage/100778316>

54 Jeff Tollefson, ‘What the War in Ukraine Means for Energy, Climate and Food’ (5 April 2022) <www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00969-9>

55 Ibid, 4; National Hydrogen Strategy (n 57) 17

56 Commonwealth of Australia, ‘Australia’s National Hydrogen Strategy’ Australian Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2019) <www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-11/australias-national-hydrogen-strategy.pdf> (‘National Hydrogen Strategy’, n 57)

57 Commonwealth of Australia, ‘Technology Investment Roadmap: First Low Emissions Technology Statement – 2020’ Australian Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2020) 6 <https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/australias-national-hydrogen-strategy.pdf>

58 As of 30 April 2023 <www.dcceew.gov.au/energy/publications/australias-national-hydrogen-strategy>

59 National Hydrogen Strategy, x

60 Ibid, xi

61 Ibid, 70

62 Ibid

63 See eg National Hydrogen Strategy (n 57); New South Wales Government, Hydrogen Strategy (2021) <https://www.energy.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-08/2021_10_NSW_HydrogenStrategy.pdf> (NSW Hydrogen Strategy) 44

64 See eg NSW Hydrogen Strategy, (n 63) 10; Western Australian Government, Renewable Hydrogen Strategy (2021) <https://www.wa.gov.au/government/publications/western-australian-renewable-hydrogen-strategy-and-roadmap> (WA Renewable Hydrogen Strategy) (30; Northern Territory Government, Northern Territory Renewable Hydrogen Strategy (2021) <https://industry.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/905000/nt-renewable-hydrogen-strategy.pdf> (NT Renewable Hydrogen Strategy) 8

65 See eg NSW Hydrogen Strategy (n 63) 9; Victorian Government, ictorian Renewable Hydrogen Industry Development Plan (2019) <https://www.energy.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0022/580621/Victorian-Renewable-Hydrogen-Industry-Development-Plan-compressed.pdf>, 22

66 Sophie Vorrath, ‘South Australia Renewable Hydrogen Hub Wins Japanese Backing’ (Renew Economy, 15 November 2021) <https://reneweconomy.com.au/south-australia-renewable-hydrogen-export-plan-wins-japanese-backing/>

67 National Hydrogen Strategy (n 57) xiv, 32

68 International Energy Agency, Global Hydrogen Review 2022 (September 2022) 83

69 Ibid

70 Bruce and others (n 9)

71 Philip Woods, Heriberto Bustamante and Kondo-Francois Aguey-Zinsoub, ‘The Hydrogen Economy – Where Is the Water?’ (September 2022) Energy Nexus 7, 100123 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100123>

72 Ibid

73 Hydrogen Europe, ‘Hydrogen Production & Water Consumption’ (December 2020)

74 Woods, Bustamante and Aguey-Zinsoub (n 71)

75 Andi Mehmeti, Athanasios Angelis-Dimakis, George Arampatzis, Stephen J. McPhail and Sergio Ulgiati, ‘Life Cycle Assessment and Water Footprint of Hydrogen Production Methods: From Conventional to Emerging Technologies’ (2018) 5 Environments 24

76 David J Lampert, Hao Caia and Amgad Elgowainya, ‘Wells to Wheels: Water Consumption for Transportation Fuels in the United States’ (2016) 9 Energy & Environmental Science 787 <https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EE03254G>

77 David J Lampert and others, ‘Development of a Life Cycle Inventory of Water Consumption Associated with the Production of Transportation Fuels. United States’ (2015) doi:10.2172/1224980

78 Herib Blanco, ‘Hydrogen Production in 2050: How Much Water Will 74EJ Need? (22 July 2021) <https://energypost.eu/hydrogen-production-in-2050-how-much-water-will-74ej-need/>

79 Lampert, Caia and Elgowainya (n 76)

80 Marcus Newborough and Graham Cooley, ‘Green Hydrogen: Water Use Implications and Opportunities’ (2021) 12 Fuel Cells Bulletin 12

81 Ibid

82 Amjad Al-Qahtani and others, ‘Uncovering the True Cost of Hydrogen Production Routes Using Life Cycle Monetisation’ (2021) 281(1) Applied Energy 115958, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115958

83 Steven Percy, ‘Green Hydrogen Is Coming – And These Australian Regions Are Well Placed to Build Our New Export Industry’ (17 January 2022) <https://theconversation.com/green-hydrogen-is-coming-and-these-australian-regions-are-well-placed-to-build-our-new-export-industry-174466>

84 AJ Feitz, E Tenthorey and RA Coghlan, ‘Prospective Hydrogen Production Regions of Australia’ (Geoscience Australia, 2019) <https://ecat.ga.gov.au/geonetwork/srv/eng/catalog.search#/metadata/130930>

85 Rebecca Lester and others, ‘For Australia to Lead the Way on Green Hydrogen, First We Must Find Enough Water’ (21 December 2022) <https://theconversation.com/for-australia-to-lead-the-way-on-green-hydrogen-first-we-must-find-enough-water-196144>

86 Rebecca E. Lester and others, Water Requirements for Use in Hydrogen Production in Australia: Potential Public Policy and Industry-Related Issues (2022) Centre for Regional and Rural Futures, Deakin University

87 Parliament of Australia, ‘Water’ <www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BriefingBook44p/Water>

88 Australian Government – Bureau of Meteorology, ‘Water in Australia 2019–20’ <www.bom.gov.au/water/waterinaustralia/#wateruse>

89 Ibid

90 Ibid

91 Dr Joseph Monaghan and Christopher Watt, ‘Australian and Californian Water Laws – Can We Learn from One Another?’ (18 January 2022) <www.holdingredlich.com/australian-and-californian-water-laws-can-we-learn-from-one-another>

92 Ibid

93 Productivity Commission, ‘National Water Reform 2020 – Productivity Commission Inquiry Report No. 96’ (28 May 2021) 19

94 Woods, Bustamante and Aguey-Zinsoub (n 71) 6

95 Katie O’Bryan, History of Water Law in Australia in Indigenous Rights and Water Resource Management (Routledge 2018) 32

96 Monaghan and Watt (n 93)

97 O’Bryan (n 95) 33

98 [2009] HCA 51

99 O’Bryan (n 95) 39

100 The only express provision in the Constitution relating to water is s 100, which states: ‘The Commonwealth shall not, by any law or regulation of trade or commerce, abridge the right of a State or of the residents therein to the reasonable use of the waters of rivers for conservation or irrigation’.

101 Paul Kildea and George Williams, ‘The Constitution and the Management of Water in Australia’s Rivers’ (Paper Delivered at the Supreme and Federal Courts Judges’ Conference, 25 January 2010) 1–2

102 Ibid 1

103 Landscape South Australia Act 2019 (SA) (LSAA) s 101

104 Ibid s 101 pt 4

105 Ibid s 101 ss 104, 105

106 Ibid s 101 sub-s 104(3)

107 Ibid sub-s 104(5)

108 Ibid s 101 ss 100, 104

109 Ibid s 101 ss 102–104

110 Australian Government – Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, ‘National Water Policy’ <www.dcceew.gov.au/water/policy/policy>

111 Ibid

112 O’Bryan (n 95) 47

113 Australian Government – Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, ‘National Water Policy’ (n 110)

114 Intergovernmental Agreement on a National Water Initiative (2004) <www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/water-reform/national-water-initiative-agreement-2004.pdf>

115 Ibid art 4

116 As articulated in ibid art 34

117 Australian Government – Murray–Darling Basin Authority, ‘The Water Act’ <www.mdba.gov.au/about-us/governance/water-act>

118 Ibid

119 Water Act 2007 (Cth) Sch 1, s 131

120 Penny Whetton and Francis Chiew, ‘Chapter 12 – Climate Change and the Murray–Darling Basin’ in Murray–Darling Basin, Australia Its Future Management: Vol 1, Ecohydrology from Catchment to Coast 253–274, 274–275

121 Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment Act 2013 (Cth)

122 Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth), ch 2, pt 3, Division 1, Subdivision FB

123 Ibid s 131AB

124 Australian Conservation Foundation Inc v Minister for the Environment [2021] FCA 550

125 Brendan Tobin and Alison Thorp, ‘Federal Court Expands Scope of Activities Associated with Coal Mining Projects Caught by Water Trigger Under the EPBC Act’ (23 August 2021) <https://hallandwilcox.com.au/thinking/federal-court-expands-scope-of-activities-associated-with-coal-mining-projects-caught-by-water-trigger-under-the-epbc-act/>

126 Australian Government – Department of Environment and Energy, ‘Implementation of the Water Trigger under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment Act 2013 – Post Implementation Review’ (15 December 2016) 15

127 EPBC referral 2008/4432

128 Australian Government – Department of Environment and Energy, ‘Implementation of the Water Trigger (n 126) 15

129 Ibid 15

130 Australia Standing Council on Energy and Resources, Harmonised Regulatory Framework for Natural Gas from Coal Seams (2013) <https://energyministers.gov.au/sites/prod.energycouncil/files/publications/documents/National%20Harmonised%20Regulatory%20Framework%20for%20Natural%20Gas%20from%20Coal%20Seams%20%28May%202013%29.pdf > 9

131 Ibid 9

132 Graeme Samuel, Independent Review of the EPBC Act – Final Report (Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, October 2020) (‘Samuel Report’)

133 Australian Government, DCCEEW, Nature Positive Plan: Better for the Environment, Better for Business (October 2022) <https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc/publications/nature-positive-plan> (‘Nature Positive Plan’)

134 Samuel Report (n 132) 26

135 Nature Positive Plan (n 133), 2

136 Ibid 2

137 Samuel Report (n 132) 223

138 See eg the Federal ‘Clean Hydrogen Industrial Hubs Program’ <www.dcceew.gov.au/about/news/funding-available-for-clean-hydrogen-industrial-hubs or the NSW>; ‘Hydrogen Hubs for NSW’ <www.energy.nsw.gov.au/business-and-industry/programs-grants-and-schemes/hydrogen-hubs-nsw>

139 See eg Engie’s ‘Yuri Renewable Hydrogen to Ammonia Project’ <https://engie.com.au/yuri>

140 Bella Peacock, ‘Green Hydrogen Megaproject in SA Discontinued’ (31 May 2022) <www.pv-magazine-australia.com/2022/05/31/green-hydrogen-megaproject-in-sa-discontinued/>

141 Productivity Commission, ‘National Water Reform 2020 – Productivity Commission Inquiry Report No. 96’ (28 May 2021) 19

142 International Energy Agency, ‘Global Hydrogen Review 2022’ (September 2022) 73

143 Ibid 73

144 Ibid 73

145 ARENA, ‘Watch This Space: Ultra Low-Cost Solar’ (27 October 2022) <https://arena.gov.au/blog/watch-this-space-ultra-low-cost-solar/>

146 Lester and others, ‘For Australia to Lead the Way’ (n 85)

147 Woods, Bustamante and Aguey-Zinsoub (n 71) 2

148 Ibid

149 Regina M Buono, Regulating Water Security in Unconventional Oil and Gas (Springer 2020) 22

150 Woods, Bustamante and Aguey-Zinsoub (n 71)

151 Ibid

152 Hydrogen Europe, ‘Hydrogen Production & Water Consumption’ (December 2020)

153 South Australian Government (Northern Water Supply Project, 2022) <www.northernwatersupply.sa.gov.au/>

154 CSIRO (Port Bonython Hydrogen Hub, October 2022) <https://research.csiro.au/hyresource/port-<bonython-hydrogen-hub/>

155 Ibid 808

156 ‘Hydrogen’ (Geoscience Australia, n.d.) <www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/hydrogen#heading-3>

157 <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/02/230214154047.htm>. Scientists are also developing methods for producing hydrogen from saline water that can also capture and store carbon dioxide, thereby generating negative emissions. See <www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0203-0>. Negative emissions technologies present additional regulatory challenges. For an analysis of these challenges in an Australian context see Jan McDonald and others, ‘Greenhouse Gas Removal in Australian Climate Law: A Positive Role for Negative Emissions’ (2023) 46(1) UNSW Law Journal 79.

158 Ibid

159 National Hydrogen Strategy, Action 4.16, 82 and 55

160 On corporate commitments and the move to net zero, see eg Peter Holt and Anna Kuiper, ‘Net Zero Commitments: What Role Are Investors Playing?’ (Energetics Insights, March 2021) <www.energetics.com.au/insights/thought-leadership/net-zero-commitments-what-role-are-investors-playing>

161 See eg the UK Renewable Energy Guarantees of Origin scheme, administered by Ofgem: <www.ofgem.gov.uk/environmental-and-social-schemes/renewable-energy-guarantees-origin-rego>

162 IPHE is an international intergovernmental partnership, consisting of 21 member countries and the European Commission, whose objective is ‘to facilitate and accelerate the transition to clean and efficient energy and mobility systems using fuel cells and hydrogen (FCH) technologies’: International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy (‘Partners’, 2021) <www.iphe.net/partners>

163 Commonwealth of Australia, ‘A Hydrogen Guarantee of Origin Scheme for Australia: Discussion Paper’ (June 2021) (‘GO Scheme Discussion Paper’) 5 <https://consult.industry.gov.au/hydrogen-guarantee-of-origin-scheme>

164 Information on CertifHy is available through the website <www.certifhy.eu/>

165 COAG Energy Council, ‘Guarantees of Origin’, National Hydrogen Strategy – Issue Paper 4 (1 July 2019) <https://consult.industry.gov.au/national-hydrogen-strategy-issues-papers>

166 GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163)

167 IPHE, ‘Methodology for Determining the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with the Production of Hydrogen’ (2021) <https://www.iphe.net/iphe-working-paper-methodology-doc-oct-2021>

168 Australian Government, Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources, ‘Hydrogen Guarantee of Origin Scheme: Consultation Summary and Next Steps’ (2021) (‘GO Scheme Consultation Summary’) <https://consult.industry.gov.au/hydrogen-guarantee-of-origin-scheme>

169 Clean Energy Regulator, ‘Guarantee of Origin’ (10 December 2021) <www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/Infohub/Markets/guarantee-of-origin#:~:text=The%20Australian%20Government%20has%20asked,from%20the%208th%20December%202021>

170 DCCEEW, Guarantee of Origin Scheme (30 April 2023) <www.dcceew.gov.au/energy/renewable/guarantee-of-origin-scheme>; Clare Corke and others, ‘Update on Australia’s Hydrogen Guarantee of Origin and Certification Scheme’ (Corrs Chambers Westgarth, 8 March 2022) <www.corrs.com.au/insights/update-on-australias-hydrogen-guarantee-of-origin-and-certification-scheme#>

171 DCCEEW, Australia’s Guarantee of Origin Scheme: Policy Position Paper (December 2022); DCCEEW, Renewable Electricity Certification: Policy Position Paper for Renewable Electricity Generation under the Guarantee of Origin Scheme and for Economy-Wide Use (December 2022) <www.dcceew.gov.au/energy/renewable/guarantee-of-origin-scheme>

172 DCCEEW, Australia’s Guarantee of Origin Scheme: Policy Position Paper (December 2022) 17

173 GO Scheme Consultation Summary (n 168) 1

174 Scope 1 emissions are those released as a direct result of the production of hydrogen, and include combustion, fugitive, and industrial process emissions. Combustion emissions arise from the combustion of relevant solid, liquid and/or gaseous fuels. Fugitive emissions are GHGs that are leaked or unintentionally released (eg methane gas released during coal mining). Industrial process emissions are released from industrial activities, eg hydrofluorocarbons used in industrial refrigeration and cooling systems and sulphur hexafluoride used in electrical switchgear. Scope 2 emissions are emissions from purchased or acquired electricity, steam, heat, and cooling. GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163) 27; see also DCCEEW, Australia’s Guarantee of Origin Scheme: Policy Position Paper (December 2022) 31–32

175 GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163) 13

176 GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163) 17

177 Ibid 18

178 Ibid 18

179 Ibid 18

180 GO Scheme Consultation Summary (n 168) 1

181 Lee V White and others, ‘Towards Emissions Certification Systems for International Trade in Hydrogen: The Policy Challenge of Defining Boundaries for Emissions Accounting’ (2021) 215 (Part A) Energy 119139, 2–3

182 DCCEEW, Australia’s Guarantee of Origin Scheme: Policy Position Paper (December 2022) 14

183 Ibid 18

184 GO Scheme Consultation Summary (n 168) 4

185 Ibid 4

186 GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163) 16–17

187 Gilbert + Tobin, ‘High Hopes: Why the Proposed H2Go Certification Scheme Must Embrace Green Hydrogen’ Gilbert + Tobin (23 September 2021) <www.gtlaw.com.au/knowledge/hy-hopes-why-proposed-h2go-certification-scheme-must-embrace-green-hydrogen>. CertifHy, for example, has two labels: CERTIFHY™ GREEN HYDROGEN and CERTIFHY™ LOW-CARBON HYDROGEN, which provide a comparatively simple way to compare products. For more information, see CertifHy, ‘GO Labels’ (Webpage, 2022) <www.certifhy.eu/go-labels/>

188 GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163) 19–20

189 GO Scheme Consultation Summary (n 168) 4

190 DCCEEW, Australia’s Guarantee of Origin Scheme: Policy Position Paper (December 2022) 27, 31

191 GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163) 21

192 National Hydrogen Strategy, xiv

193 The ERF is implemented through the Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), the Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Regulations 2011 and the Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Rule 2015

194 GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163) 21

195 GO Scheme Consultation Summary (n 168) 5

196 Ibid 5

197 Ibid

198 Stephen Long and Alex McDonald, ‘Insider Blows Whistle on Australia’s Greenhouse Gas Reduction Schemes’, (ABC News, 24 March 2022) <www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-24/insider-blows-whistle-on-greenhouse-gas-reduction-schemes/100933186>; Polly Hemming and others, Come Clean: How the Emissions Reduction Fund Came to Include Carbon Capture and Storage (The Australia Institute 2022); Declan Kuch, ‘Now We Know the Flaws of Carbon Offsets, It’s Time to Get Real About Climate Change’ (The Conversation, 25 April 2022) <https://theconversation.com/now-we-know-the-flaws-of-carbon-offsets-its-time-to-get-real-about-climate-change-181071>

199 Clean Energy Council, ‘Submission: Guarantee of Origin Schemes for Hydrogen and Renewable Electricity’ (Clean Energy Council, 30 July 2021) 3 <https://assets.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/documents/advocacy-initiatives/submissions/submission-guarantee-origin-scheme-hydrogen-renewable-electricity.pdf >

200 GO Scheme Discussion Paper (n 163) 21; GO Scheme Consultation Summary (n 168) 5

201 DCCEEW, Australia’s Guarantee of Origin Scheme: Policy Position Paper (December 2022) 34

202 Ibid 13

203 National Hydrogen Strategy, Strategic Action 4.19, 82; see also 55

204 Clare Corke, Matthew Muir, and Cameron Busch, ‘What Should a Hydrogen Certification and Guarantee of Origin Scheme Look Like in Australia?’ Corrs Chambers Westgarth, 11 August 2020 <www.corrs.com.au/insights/what-should-a-hydrogen-certification-and-guarantee-of-origin-scheme-look-like-in-australia>

205 DCCEEW, Australia’s Guarantee of Origin Scheme: Policy Position Paper (December 2022) 39

206 Ibid 39

207 National Hydrogen Strategy (n 57) 12

208 Ibid 12

209 Senate Environment and Communications References Committee, Report on the Adequacy of the Regulatory Framework Governing Water Use by the Extractive Industry (October 2018) [2.19]

210 Bureau of Meteorology, Water in Australia 2019–20, 5 <www.bom.gov.au/water/waterinaustralia/files/Water-in-Australia-2019-20.pdf>

211 Naomi Bergman, Emily Johnstone, and Emily Morison, ‘Water Access for Hydrogen Projects: Don’t Let Your Options Dry Up’, Allens Linklaters, 25 October 2021 <www.allens.com.au/insights-news/insights/2021/10/Water-access-for-hydrogen-projects/>