Maritime boundaries in the energy transition: carbon dioxide (CO₂) storage across maritime jurisdictions

Abstract

Governments around the world are looking to ensure their transition to full low-carbon economies whilst tackling climate change by implementing offshore carbon capture and storage (CCS) – a method of permanently removing carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the burning of fossil fuels and burying it deep below the seabed in suitable geological formations. Among the main targets of such geological formations are depleted, or nearly depleted, offshore oil and gas reservoirs within existing oil-producing fields. However, such reservoirs will frequently transcend maritime boundaries and jurisdictions, ie a shared geological formation could be used on both sides of the maritime boundary for CO₂ sequestration and storage. This raises the potential for disputes among nations, transboundary environmental degradation, and business disruption. The paper discusses the role of CCS in the low-carbon energy transition, focusing specifically on international legal aspects related to the storage of CO₂ in sub-seabed geological formations of the continental shelf. Ongoing CO₂ storage projects are examined to showcase critical technical aspects, including reservoir selection, well design, and post-injection monitoring. The analysis highlights the need for international coordination in situations where CO₂ storage occurs across an international boundary and the importance of consent from all states with jurisdiction over the relevant CO₂ storage formations. The paper concludes that existing maritime boundary agreements, including those with straddling deposit clauses, are unlikely to cover transboundary CO₂ storage operations, except if they are considered incidental to ongoing petroleum operations.

Keywords:

• carbon capture and storage
• CO₂ storage
• maritime boundaries
• oil and gas
• straddling deposits
• UNCLOS
• London Convention
• London Protocol

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Sixth Assessment Report (2023) <www.ipcc.ch/ar6-syr/> accessed 4 June 2023

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3 International Energy Agency (IEA), Global Energy Review 2021: Assessing the Effects of Economic Recoveries on Global Energy Demand and CO₂ Emissions in 2021 (2022) <www.iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/d0031107-401d-4a2f-a48b-9eed19457335/GlobalEnergyReview2021.pdf> accessed 4 June 2023

4 IPCC, Sixth Assessment Report (n 1)

5 See for instance the Zero-Gen project in Queensland, Australia, during the 2010s, which attempted to generate clean coal. Ultimately this project was unsuccessful. Andrew Garnett, ‘ZeroGen Project – Managing Risk and Uncertainty’ (2011) 4 Energy Procedia 5631

6 Intentional storage of CO₂ in the ocean has been considered by the IPCC in its 2018 Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate <www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/srccs_chapter6-1.pdf>

7 IAE, Carbon Capture and Storage: Legal and Regulatory Review (May 2011); OECD/IEA, Technology Roadmap: Carbon Capture and Storage (July 2013). IEA, Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector (4th revision, 2021); IEA, Clean Energy Transitions Programme Report (2021) <www.iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/3a89edf0-79ce-492e-8bb1-2d083bf5fbca/CETPAnnualReport2021.pdf>. For a detailed discussion on the particularities of CO₂ storage offshore, including rights, licences and liability, see Ian Havercroft, Richard Macrory and Richard Stewart (eds), Carbon Capture and Storage: Emerging Legal and Regulatory Issues (OUP 2018); Dirk Uwer, Daniel Zimmer and Hengeler Mueller, Carbon Capture and Storage: The Legal Landscape of Climate Change Mitigation Technology (Globe Law and Business 2023)

8 IAE, Energy Technology Perspectives 2020: Special Report on Carbon Capture Utilisation and Storage – CUS in Clean Energy Transitions (2020) <www.iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/181b48b4-323f-454d-96fb-0bb1889d96a9/CCUS_in_clean_energy_transitions.pdf> accessed 20 March 2023

9 UNFCC, <www.unfccc.int/resource/climateaction2020/tep/thematic-areas/carbon-capture/index.html> accessed 13 June 2023; P Zakkour, J Scowcroft and W Heidug, ‘The Role of UNFCCC Mechanisms in Demonstration and Deployment of CCS Technologies’ (2014) 63 Energy Procedia 6945

10 IAE, Energy Technology Perspectives 2020 (n 8)

11 Bert Metz and others, ‘IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage’ (CUP 2010)

12 Alexandra B Klass and Elizabeth J Wilson, ‘Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration: Assessing a Liability Regime for the Long-Term Storage of Carbon Dioxide’ (2008) 58 Emory Law Journal 103, 119

13 Michael Faure and Roy A Partain, Carbon Capture and Storage: Efficient Legal Policies for Risk Governance and Compensation (MIT Press 2016)

14 For a discussion, see Alexander Proelss and Kerstin Güssow, ‘Carbon Capture and Storage from the Perspective of International Law’ in C Herrmann and J Terhechte (eds), European Yearbook of International Economic Law (Springer 2011) 151

15 Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, Report of Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project (May 2015)

16 ‘Chevron, Japan’s MOL to Study CO₂ Transportation from Singapore to Australia’ (Reuters, 10 Nov 2022) <www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/chevron-japans-mol-study-CO₂-transportation-singapore-australia-2022-11-10/> accessed 10 Nov 2023

17 ‘Indonesia, Malaysia Seek to Become Regional Carbon Storage Hubs’ (South East Asia Development Solutions, 20 December 2023) <www.seads.adb.org/solutions/indonesia-malaysia-seek-become-regional-carbon-storage-hubs> accessed 13 Jan 2024

18 For developments in international and national law up to 2014, see Tim Dixon, Sean T McCoy and Ian Havercroft, ‘Legal and Regulatory Developments on CCS’ (2015) 40 International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 431; See also Roy A Partain and Michael G Faure, ‘Development of a Regulatory Framework for CDM-Enabled Offshore Carbon Capture and Storage (OCCS) in China’ in Stefan E Weishaar and others (eds), Regulatory Reform in China and the EU (Edward Elgar 2017) 165; Roy A Partain, ‘Regulatory Frameworks for South Korea’s Offshore Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Activities’ (2020) 69 Kyungpook Law Review 63

19 Metz and others (n 11), 15; see also David Hawkins, George Peridas and John Steelman, ‘Twelve Years After Sleipner: Moving CCS from Hype to Pipe’ (2009) 1(1) Energy Procedia 4403

20 Faure notes that the long-term risk related to CO₂ storage ‘entails that there could be negative effects and potential damage resulting from CO₂ in a distant future … This long-term character always creates problems from a liability and compensation perspective. This raises inter alia the question of how financing can be made available when damage would occur at the time when operators may no longer be in business’. Michael Faure, ‘Liability and Compensation for Damage Resulting from CO₂ Storage Sites’ (2016) 40 William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review 287

21 Klass and Wilson (n 12) 103, 119

22 Jens T Birkholzer, Curtis M Oldenburg and Quanlin Zhou, ‘CO₂ Migration and Pressure Evolution in Deep Saline Aquifers’ (2015) 40 International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 203, 209

23 Faure and Partain (n 13) 43

24 Nigel Bankes, ‘Carbon Capture and Storage and the Law of the Sea’ in E Johansen and others (eds), The Law of the Sea and Climate Change: Solutions and Constraints (CUP 2020) 161, 176

25 Nigel Bankes, ‘The Use of Sub-Seabed Transboundary Geological Formations for the Disposal of Carbon Dioxide’ in Catherine Banet (ed), The Law of the Seabed Access, Uses, and Protection of Seabed Resources (Brill 2020) 397, 413–16

26 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [UNCLOS] (adopted 10 December 1982; entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 397

27 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention) (adopted 29 December 1972; entered into force 30 August 1975) (1972) 11 International Legal Materials 1294; Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Protocol) (adopted 7 November 1996; entered into force 24 March 2006) (1997) 36 International Legal Materials 1

28 Moonsook Park, ‘Study on Legal Systems for Transboundary CCS Implementation and Transboundary Environmental Liability Regarding CCS’ (2020) 16(1) Loyola University Chicago International Law Review 45

29 Bankes, ‘The Use of Sub-Seabed Transboundary Geological Formations’ (n 25) 413–16

30 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, ch 5: ‘Carbon Dioxide Transport, Injection and Geological Storage’ <www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/pdf/2_Volume2/V2_5_Ch5_CCS.pdf>

31 David Langlet, ‘Transboundary Dimensions of CCS: EU Law Problems and Prospects’ (2014) 8(3) Carbon and Climate Law Review 198

32 Directive 2009/31/EC of the European Parliament and the Capture and Storage Technology in Europe (2013/2079(INI))

33 For a comprehensive study, see Martha M Roggenkamp and Edwin Woerdman (eds), Legal Design of Carbon Capture and Storage, Developments in the Netherlands from an International and EU Perspective (Intersentia 2009)

34 UNFCCC, ‘Transboundary Carbon Capture and Storage Project Activities’ (Technical Paper, 1 November 2012) Doc FCCC/TP/2012/9

35 ‘Storing CO₂ in depleted or depleting oil and gas fields has now been proven at a number of sites worldwide’: Sarah Hannis and others, ‘CO₂ Storage in Depleted or Depleting Oil and Gas Fields: What Can We Learn from Existing Projects?’ (2017) 114 Energy Procedia 5680

36 K Michael and others, ‘CO₂ Storage in Saline Aquifers II – Experience from Existing Storage Operations’ (2009) 1 Energy Propedia 1973, at 1973

37 Institute for 21st Century Energy, CO₂ Enhanced Oil Recovery (US Chamber of Commerce 2013) 4

38 Miscibility is when multiple liquids mix together, becoming a completely homogeneous liquid. For example, water and vinegar are completely miscible. In contrast, water and oil are immiscible since they do not combine in any proportion. ibid 4

39 Ibid

40 Ibid

41 Ibid

42 Ibid

43 Michael Godeca and others, ‘CO₂ Storage in Depleted Oil Fields: The Worldwide Potential for Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery’ (2011) 4 Energy Propedia 2162, at 2164

44 Ibid

45 Godeca and others (n 43); Hannis and others (n 35)

46 Godeca and others (n 43) 2164

47 Ibid, 2168

48 Ibid, 2168–69

49 Michael and others (n 36), 1974

50 Peter Zweigel and others, ‘Reservoir Geology of the Utsira Formation at the First Industrial-Scale Underground CO₂ Storage Site (Sleipner Area, North Sea)’ in SJ Baines and RH Worden (eds), Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide (Geological Society 2004) 165

51 Helge Kongsjorden, Olav Kårstad and Tore Torp, ‘Saline Aquifer Storage of Carbon Dioxide in the Sleipner Project’ (1997) 17(5/6) Waste Management 303–08, at 303–04

52 RA Chadwick and others, ‘Geological Reservoir Characterisation of a CO₂ Storage Site: The Utsira Sand, Sleipner, Northern North Sea’ (2004) 29 Energy 1371–81, at 1371–73

53 Ibid

54 Ibid

55 Ibid

56 Ibid

57 Ibid

58 Ibid, 1375

59 Statista, ‘Annual Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Norway from 1970 to 2021 (in Million Metric Tons)’ <www.statista.com/statistics/449787/co2-emissions-norway/> accessed 13 Nov 2023

60 Tore Torp and John Gale, ‘Demonstrating Storage of CO₂ in Geological Reservoirs: The Sleipner and SACS Projects’ (2004) 29 Energy 1361

61 Geoscience Australia, ‘Submission to the Inquiry into the 2009 and 2013 Amendments to the 1996 Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 (London Protocol)’ (10 March 2023) 7–8 <www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/Climate_Change_Energy_Environment_and_Water/LondonProtocol/Submissions> accessed 13 Nov 2023

62 Kai Zhang, Hon Chung Lau and Zhangxin Chen, ‘Extension of CO₂ Storage Life in the Sleipner CCS Project by Reservoir Pressure Management’ (2022) 108 Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 1

63 Samantha McCulloch, ‘Carbon Capture in 2021: Off and Running or Another False Start?’ (IEA 2021) <www.iea.org/commentaries/carbon-capture-in-2021-off-and-running-or-another-false-start> accessed 13 Nov 2023; Climate Neutral Group Insights, ‘What Exactly Is 1 Tonne of CO₂?’ (2022) <www.climateneutralgroup.com/en/news/what-exactly-is-1-tonne-of-co2-v2/> accessed 13 Nov 2023

64 Ji-Quan Shi and others, ‘Snøhvit CO₂ Storage Project: Assessment of CO₂ Injection Performance Through History Matching of the Injection Well Pressure Over a 32-months Period’ (2013) 37 Energy Procedia 3267

65 T Maldal and I Tappel, ‘CO₂ Underground Storage for Snøhvit Gas Field Development’ (2004) 29 Energy 1403–11, at 1405–06

66 Ibid

67 Ibid

68 Ibid

69 Ji-Quan Shi and others (n 64), 3267

70 Maldal and Tappel (n 65) 1405

71 Regulations Relating to Exploitation of Subsea Reservoirs on the Continental Shelf for Storage of CO₂ and Relating to Transportation of CO₂ on the Continental Shelf (2014) [CCS Regulations]

72 When metals (such as steel) are exposed to salt water, differences in electric potential develop at the surface of the metal, resulting in the formation of numerous small corrosion cells, ultimately leading to weakness of the metal. See US National Bureau of Standards, ‘Basic Research into the Corrosion of Steel’ (1958) 5(9) Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials 295

73 Jianbo Sun and others, ‘Effect of Chromium on Corrosion Behavior of P110 Steels in CO₂–H₂S Environment with High Pressure and High Temperature’ (2016) 9(3) Materials 200

74 Torp and Gale (n 60)

75 RA Chadwick and Ola Eiken, ‘Offshore CO₂ Storage: Sleipner Natural Gas Field Beneath North Sea’ in J Gluyas and S Mathias (eds), Geological Storage of Cardon Dioxide (CO₂): Geoscience, Technologies, Environmental Aspects and Legal Frameworks (Woodhead Publishing 2013) 232

76 Ibid, 234

77 See studies including Chadwick and others (n 52); Anne-Kari Furre, Anders Kiær and Ola Eiken, ‘CO₂ Induced Seismic Time Shifts at Sleipner’ (2015) 3(3) Interpretation SS23–SS35

78 Chadwick and Eiksen (n 75), 234

79 Including Chadwick and others (n 52), 1377

80 Joonsang Park and others, ‘CSEM Sensitivity Study for Sleipner CO₂-Injection Monitoring’ (2013) 37 Energy Procedia 4199, at 4199

81 Constantinos Yiallourides, ‘Maritime Boundaries and Cooperation over Straddling Seabed Resources in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea’ in Tina Soliman Hunter and Madeline Taylor (eds), Research Handbook of Oil and Gas Law (Edward Elgar 2023) 389, at 396–400

82 Chadwick and Eiksen (n 75), 234–36

83 T Kabera and Y Li, 'Pressure evolution in deep saline aquifers during CO2 injection: A method to control high pressure buildup' (2011 International Conference on Electrical and Control Engineering) (Yichang, China, 16-18 September 2011) <https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6057626> accessed 14 January 2024

84 Bankes, ‘The Use of Sub-Seabed Transboundary Geological Formations’ (n 25) 413–16

85 Faure and Partain (n 13)

86 Martha M Roggenkamp, ‘Re-using (Nearly) Depleted Oil and Gas Fields in the North Sea for CO₂ Storage: Seizing or Missing a Window of Opportunity?’ in Banet (n 25) 454

87 UNCLOS, art 56, 61(2), 64, 65, 66, 117, 118, 123, 194, 197–201

88 Hans Christian Bugge, ‘Allocation under the Climate Regime between the State Parties of Emissions Due to Leakage’ in Havercroft, Macrory and Stewart (n 7) 131

89 Bankes, ‘Carbon Capture and Storage and the Law of the Sea’ (n 24) 169

90 Proelss and Güssow (n 14) 151

91 Jürgen Friedrich, ‘Carbon Capture and Storage: A New Challenge for International Environmental Law’ (2007) 67 ZaöRV 211; Laisa Branco de Almeida, ‘The International Law of Energy of Offshore Carbon Capture and Storage: The Rotterdam Nucleus Project Case Study’ (2022) 24(1) Environmental Law 10

92 Proelss and Güssow (n 14) 157–60

93 International Law Commission, ‘Draft Articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers, with commentaries’ Adopted at the ILC 60th Session (2008)

94 See also Bankes 'The Use of Sub-Seabed Transboundary Geological Formations' (2020) 406–09

95 Decision 6/14 of the Governing Council of UNEP (19 May 1978)

96 GA Res 34/186 (1979) <www.undocs.org/en/A/RES/34/186> accessed 13 Nov 2023

97 David Ong, ‘Joint Development of Common Offshore Oil and Gas Deposits: “Mere” State Practice or Customary International Law?’ (1999) 93(4) American Journal of International Law 771

98 James Crawford, Chance, Order, Change: The Course of International Law (Hague Academy of International Law 2014) 504

99 For a discussion, see Bankes 'The Use of Sub-Seabed Transboundary Geological Formations' (2020) 397–430

100 Resolution LP.1(1) (adopted 2 November 2006)

101 Resolution LP.3(4) (adopted 30 October 2009)

102 Resolution LP.3(4) (adopted 30 October 2009) Recital 12

103 IMO, ‘Specific Guidelines for the Assessment of Carbon Dioxide for Disposal into Sub-seabed Geological Formations’ (IMO 2012), discussed in Section 4.4.3 below

104 Resolution LP.3(4) (adopted 30 October 2009)

105 Only a few countries have accepted the 2009 amendment, including Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iran, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom

106 See Justine Garrett and Sean McCoy, ‘Carbon Capture and Storage and the London Protocol: Recent Efforts to Enable Transboundary CO₂ Transfer’ (2013) 37 Energia Procedia 7747

107 IMO, ‘Report of the Forty-first Consultative Meeting and the Fourteenth Meeting of Contracting Parties LC 41/17, Section 6 and Annex 8, (IMO 2018)

108 James Harrison, ‘C. Ocean Dumping’ (2002) Vol 33 Yearbook of International Environmental Law 1

109 ‘Specific Guidelines for the Assessment of Carbon Dioxide for Disposal into Sub-seabed Geological Formations’ (IMO 2012)

110 Dixon, McCoy, and Havercroft (n 18) 431

111 Catherine Redgwell, ‘Mind the Gap in the GAIRS: The Role of Other Instruments in LOSC Regime Implementation in the Offshore Energy Sector’ in Nigel Bankes and Seline Trevisanut (eds), Energy from the Sea: An International Law Perspective on Ocean Energy (Brill 2014)

112 Art 1(5): ‘Marine geoengineering’ is defined as ‘a deliberate intervention in the marine environment to manipulate natural processes, including to counteract anthropogenic climate change and/or its impacts, and that has the potential to result in deleterious effects, especially where those effects may be widespread, long-lasting or severe’

113 ‘Ocean fertilisation involves large-scale fertilising of the ocean with nutrients such as iron, nitrogen or phosphorus in an attempt to produce massive phytoplankton blooms which may assist in increasing absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere’: see Rosemary Rayfuse, Mark G Lawrence and Kristina M Gjerde, ‘Ocean Fertilisation and Climate Change: The Need to Regulate Emerging High Seas Uses’ (2008) 23(2) The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 297

114 Constantinos Yiallourides, Nicholas A Ioannides and Roy Andrew Partain, ‘Some Observations on the Agreement between Lebanon and Israel on the Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone’ (2021) Blog of the European Journal of International Law <www.biicl.org/blog/47/some-observations-on-the-agreement-between-lebanon-and-israel-on-the-delimitation-of-the-exclusive-economic-zone> accessed 13 Nov 2023; see also Constantinos Yiallourides and Nicholas A Ioannides, ‘The Lebanon-Israel 2022 Maritime Boundary Agreement' Vol 38 Ocean Yearbook (forthcoming 2024)

115 Michael Chalupovitsch, ‘The Hans Island “Peace” Agreement between Canada, Denmark, and Greenland’ (US Library of Congress Law Blog, 22 June 2022) <www.blogs.loc.gov/law/2022/06/the-hans-island-peace-agreement-between-canada-denmark-and-greenland/> accessed 13 Nov 2023

116 Anna Khalfaoui and Constantinos Yiallourides, ‘Maritime Disputes and Disputed Seabed Resources in the African Continent’ in Penelope Crossley and Tina S Hunter (eds), Routledge Handbook of Energy Law (Routledge 2020) 526

117 Yiallourides (n 81) 395–398

118 See also Nigel Bankes, ‘The Regime for Transboundary Hydrocarbon Deposits in the Maritime Delimitation Treaties and Other Related Agreements of Arctic Coastal States’ (2016) 47(2) Ocean Development & International Law 141

119 art 210, UNCLOS; also arts 207 & 208 UNCLOS

120 As Bankes, ‘The Regime for Transboundary Hydrocarbon Deposits’ (n 118) 142 explains, ‘[a]greement between States as to the applicable rules for the development of such deposits helps to provide a secure basis for the necessary commercial arrangements and contributes to certainty of investment’

121 Art 3, UK/Norway Delimitation Agreement

122 These are: (a) Cyprus–Egypt; (b) Cyprus–Lebanon; (c) Cyprus–Israel; (d) Turkey–Libya; (e) Greece–Egypt; (f) Lebanon–Israel. For a discussion, see Yiallourides (n 81) 389–409

123 Cited in ibid 389, 402

124 Ana Bastida and others, ‘Cross-Border Unitization and Joint Development Agreements: An International Law Perspective’ (2007) 29(2) Houston Journal of International Law 355, at 391–422;Nigel Bankes, 'Recent Framework Agreements for the Recognition and Development of Transboundary Hydrocarbon Resources' (2014) 29 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 666-689

125 Agreement relating to the exploitation of the Frigg Field Reservoirs and the transmission of gas therefrom to the United Kingdom (10 May 1976) 1098 UNTS 3. The Frigg Field was abandoned in 2004.

126 Ana Bastida and others, ‘Cross-Border Unitization and Joint Development Agreements: An International Law Perspective’ (2007) 29(2) Houston Journal of International Law 355, at 391–422

127 Keith W Blinn and others (eds), International Petroleum Exploration and Exploitation Agreements: Legal, Economic and Policy Aspects (2nd edn, Barrows 2009) 201–06

128 Framework Agreement between the United Kingdom and Norway concerning Cross-Boundary Petroleum Co-operation (signed 4 April 2005; entered into force 10 July 2007)

129 Treaty between Australia and the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste Establishing Their Maritime Boundaries in the Timor Sea (signed 6 March 2018; entered into force 30 August 2019)

130 Tara Davenport, ‘The Development of the Greater Sunrise Special Regime’ in H D Phan, T Davenport and R Beckman (eds) Timor-Leste/Australia Conciliation: A Victory for UNCLOS And Peaceful Settlement of Disputes (World Scientific 2019) ch 6

131 ‘Norway Awards Offshore Licences to Explore for CO₂ Storage’ (Reuters, 1 April 2023) <www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/norway-awards-offshore-licences-explore-co2-storage-2023-03-31/> accessed 13 January 2024

132 ‘Regulations Relating to Exploitation of Subsea Reservoirs on the Continental Shelf for Storage of CO₂ and Relating to Transportation of CO₂ on the Continental Shelf’ (2014) <www.npd.no/en/regulations/regulations/exploitation-of-subsea-reservoirs-on-the-continental-shelf-for-storage-of-and-transportation-of-co/> accessed 13 Nov 2023

133 art 1-1, ibid

134 art 1-3, ibid

135 Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, Guidelines for Application of License: Award of Area for Storage of CO₂ 2022-2 on the Norwegian Continental Shelf (2022) <www.npd.no/globalassets/1-npd/fakta/co-to/tillatelser/nr-2-2022/eng/guidelines-for-application-2022-2.pdf> accessed 13 Nov 2023.; Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, ‘CO₂ Atlas for the Norwegian Continental Shelf’ <www.npd.no/en/facts/publications/co2-atlases/co2-atlas-for-the-norwegian-continental-shelf/>

136 Australia–Timor-Leste Maritime Boundary Treaty 2019, art 8

137 Ibid, art 7

138 Davenport (n 130)

139 Daniel Fitzgerald, ‘Santos’s Bayu-Undan Carbon Capture and Storage Plans May Not Stack Up, Report Says’ (ABC News, 16 February 2022) <www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-16/bayu-undan-carbon-capture-storage-santos-barossa/100827540> accessed 13 Nov 2023

140 Nguyen Hong Thao, ‘Joint Development or Permanent Maritime Boundary: The Case of East Timor and Australia’ (National Bureau of Asian Research, 24 January 2017); also see Conoco Philipps: ‘Barossa Project’ (2018) <www.static.conocophillips.com/files/resources/barossa-offshore-project20072018finalforprintnew.pdf> accessed 13 Nov 2023

141 Sanja Pekic, ‘Santos Says Bayu-Undan CCS Project Enters FEED Phase’ (Offshore Energy, 9 March 2022) <www.offshore-energy.biz/santos-says-bayu-undan-ccs-project-enters-feed-phase/>. In May 2023, Santos announced that ‘four non-binding Memorandums of Undersdanding (MOUs) have been executed with potential upstream gas and liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects offshore Northern Territory, Australia, and in Darwin as well as with an energy and industrial conglomerate in South Korea’. See Rick Wilkinson, ‘Santos Signs MOUs to Underpin Bayu-Undan CCS Project’ (Oil & Gas Journal, 5 May 2023) <www.ogj.com/energy-transition/article/14293367/santos-signs-mous-to-underpin-bayuundan-ccs-project> accessed 13 Nov 2023

142 OECD/IEA, ‘Carbon Capture and Storage Model Regulatory Framework’ (Information Paper, Nov 2010)

143 Constantinos Yiallourides, Maritime Disputes and International Law: Disputed Waters and Seabed Resources in Asia and Europe (Routledge 2019) 172–209

144 IEAGHG, Interaction of CO₂ Storage with Subsurface Resources (Report 8 April 2013)

145 Agreement on the Delimitation of the Continental Shelves between the Two Countries (Malaysia/Indonesia) (signed 27 October 1969; entered into force 7 November 1969) art 4

146 Maritime Delimitation Treaty (Colombia/Honduras) (signed 2 August 1986; entered into force 20 December 1999) art 3

147 Agreement relating to the exploitation of the Frigg Field Reservoirs and the transmission of gas therefrom to the United Kingdom (10 May 1976) 1098 UNTS 3

148 Convention on the Delimitation of the Continental Shelves of the Two States in the Bay of Biscay (France/Spain) (signed 29 January 1974; entered into force 5 April 1975)

149 Nigeria/Sao Tome and Principe (2001)

150 IMO, Guidance on the Implementation of Article 6.2 on the Export of CO₂ Streams for Disposal in Sub-seabed Geological Formations for the Purpose of Sequestration. LC 35/15 Annex 6 (2013)