To explore the relationship between online social capital and future expectation among university students in Hong Kong

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the relationship between online social capital and future expectations among university students. A total of 293 participants were involved in this cross-sectional research. The Future Expectation Scale for Adolescents (FESA) was employed to assess students’ future expectations, while the Internet Social Capital Scale (ISCS) was utilized to examine their online social capital. The results reveal a significant positive association between online social capital and future expectations (p < .001). Specifically, online bonding was found to predict all aspects of future expectations, whereas online bridging predicted most aspects, with the exception of church and community perspectives. In conclusion, this study underscores the importance of online social capital in fostering young adults’ future expectations, which, in turn, the exchange of online social capital is further facilitated, benefiting university students in terms of career opportunities, global collaboration, knowledge acquisition, cultural understanding, and personal growth.

KEYWORDS:

• Social capital
• Internet
• youth
• future expectation
• social networking

Introduction

Undergraduate students undergo a crucial transitional period from adolescence to young adulthood (Sales & Irwin, 2009), which impacts individuals’ entire lifespan, with maladjustment potentially occurring more frequently during this time (Werner & Smith, 1982). During this period, they may encounter many challenges, such as navigating complex interpersonal relationships, developing a sense of identity, and coping with academic stress, etc. According to Erikson’s developmental theory, undergraduate students, typically aged between 18 and 25, build their identities and focus on intimate relationships (Erikson, 1968). These young individuals confront the psychological conflicts of ‘identity versus role confusion’ and ‘intimacy versus isolation’ (Erikson, 1968). Within these two transitions, the former one explains that young people are required to explore and establish their sense of self and values and develop a sense of direction for the future (Marcia, 1994). This stage essentially serves as a moratorium where the identity is sharpened and direction is determined, likely to be applied in their adulthood (Erikson, 1963, p. 245). The subsequent stage steers young individuals towards establishing enduring and consolidated relationships with others. Erikson (1968) found that this stage is easier for those who have successfully navigated and resolved the previous stage. Thus, young individuals who are in the transition period may encounter difficulties that could affect their future development.

According to ‘The Global Risks Report 2022’ (Franco et al., 2022), only 16% of individuals felt positive and optimistic about their future, and just 11% held a positive belief that global progress would accelerate in the near future. A significant portion of respondents expressed concern about societal and environmental risks, given the 51 million increases in extreme poverty worldwide, which could lead to serious social polarization (Franco et al., 2022). Despite the international world, similar circumstances may exist in Hong Kong. A recent survey from the Chinese University of Hong Kong (2021) found that nearly 60% of young people in Hong Kong are looking to emigrate if possible. Moreover, the survey also found that these young individuals were pessimistic about the city’s future, giving it an average score of only 2.95 out of 10. The rating scale ranged from 1 to 10, with higher scores indicating a more optimistic outlook. This represents a significant decrease from the 4.37 average score in 2018. Individuals’ long-term goals and expectation is not only affected by adolescents’ current situation, but also the society or city’ situation (Dutra-Thomé et al., 2015). In contemporary society, with the rapid development of Internet technology, online communities have become one of the major channels for seeking and accumulating resources. As such, offline communities are no longer sufficient to explain how young individuals seek support (Liu et al., 2021). Moreover, communication and resource accumulation online align well with the characteristics of the Chinese. In 2021, 926 million young individuals were active Internet users, making China the world’s largest market for the Internet, especially in social media (Statista, 2022). Nevertheless, a large-scale Chinese survey (Ban, 2018) involving more than 5,000 young individuals indicated that nearly 60% agreed with the statement ‘The Internet brings people closer,’ and 40% agreed that ‘The Internet makes people more alienated.’ Thus, the evidence shows that young people in this era generally agree that the Internet has brought positive impacts to their lives (Zhou & Cheng, 2022).

Social capital, as firstly defined by Bourdieu (1986, p. 248) comprises the tangible or intangible resources that an individual or group acquires through a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships. Bourdieu’s concept emphasized on power, class conflicts, and reproduction (Hong & Zhao, 2015). Social, economic, and cultural capital were the three core dimensions, which were legitimized with the help of symbolic capital (Dodd et al., 2016). In other words, from Bourdieu perspective, social capital referred to a type of social struggles that may found in different social arenas (Joppke, 1986). Much like Bourdieu, other scholars such as Coleman (1990), Putnam (2000), and Lin (2001) view social capital as a process of resource accumulation, but from different perspectives. Putnam (1993) developed three primary components of social capital, which include trust, social norms and obligations, and social networks, particularly in relation to citizens’ activities. His work was greatly influenced by Tocqueville and Coleman. Social capital, as defined by Putnam, refers to ‘features of social organization, such as trust, norms, and networks, that can enhance the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions’ (Baron et al., 2000). On the other hand, Coleman suggested that social capital is a collective resource embedded in the interactions between individuals within a social system. Unlike Bourdieu (1985), Coleman gave little emphasis to the inequality of power and status. Instead, he defined social capital by its function, and stated that two characteristics should be present. Firstly, social capital consists of certain aspects of social structure, and secondly, it facilitates the actions of individuals within that social structure (Coleman, 1990, p. 302). Scholars have extensively developed and applied the concept of social capital across various social science perspectives in offline contexts (Coleman, 1988; Murayama et al., 2012). Previous studies have demonstrated the benefits of social capital on individuals’ lives, particularly their health (Murayama et al., 2012).

From the network perspective, social capital could be classified as following three social capitals: i) bonding, ii) bridging, and iii) linking (Granovetter, 1973; Putnam, 2000; Szreter & Woolcock, 2004; Williams, 2006). Bonding social capital often described as a relatively high degree of network closure, members within the relationship (i.e. family members and close friends) may access similar assets and resources. Bridging social capital is often described as a vertical tie, represents connections that link people across different class, religion, and communities (Aldrich, 2012a, 2012b; Kawachi et al., 2004). Moreover, ‘linking’ refers to the norms of respect and networks of trusting relationships that exist between people interacting across explicit, formal, or institutionalized gradients of power or authority in society (Szreter & Woolcock, 2004). Numerous studies have shown that social network sites can facilitate the accumulation of bridging social capital (Aubrey & Rill, 2013; Burke & Kraut, 2016; Ellison et al., 2007, 2011; Hofer & Aubert, 2013; Kahai & Lei, 2019; Vitak et al., 2011). From different perspectives, social capital can serve as an important indicator associated with mental health. From a social support and lifestyle perspective, social capital can be embedded in the social connections that individuals have, allowing them to access social resources (Xue & Cheng, 2017). For instance, individuals can access both tangible and intangible support, such as emotional and material support, which can lead to significant mental and physical benefits (Webster et al., 2015). Additionally, social connectedness, particularly through bonding relationships like family members, can facilitate the transmission of health-related information and behaviours (Xu & Jiang, 2020), thereby improving one’s physical and psychological well-being, including aspects like sleep, exercise, and mental health (Boen et al., 2020).

With the development of information communication technology (ICT), the internet has emerged as an indispensable tool for communication, entertainment, and education. Recent studies suggest that resources are no longer limited to tangible forms (i.e. money) but also include intangible forms (i.e. emotional supports) (Einarsdóttir et al., 2019). Consequently, social capital can be accumulated in online contexts, which is referred to as online social capital. Online social capital is a relatively new concept that has not yet been clearly defined. According to a recent study (Hussenoeder, 2022), scholars may define it as ‘the resources that can be directly or indirectly accessed through the Internet’. In this way, online social capital may share some similarities with (offline) social capital, and the offline resources may be able to transmits to the online context. Based on the literature from a social support and lifestyle perspective, individuals who access resources and/or information offline may also share their knowledge, lifestyle, or support through bridging relationships, such as online users on discussion platforms or forums. Consequently, online users can reduce adverse health conditions and improve their well-being through the diffusion of information and lifestyles. In other words, online social capital became one of the important factors under the umbrella concept of social capital when Williams (2006) developed the first online social capital scale. Given that online social capital is a key focus in the current study, it is worth noting that there are limited valid instruments available for measuring online social capital. However, one notable instrument is Williams’ ISCS scale (Williams, 2006).

In conclusion, both bonding and bridging social capital can provide benefits in different aspects and carry various advantages in life, ultimately impacting health. In this study, online items from Williams’ scale were employed to assess online social capital.

Future expectations

As mentioned before, adolescence is a crucial period of human development (Nurmi, 1991). During this stage, young individuals strive to establish more adult roles, identities, and responsibilities in order to prepare for the future (Seginer, 2008; Sipsma et al., 2012). Due to the inconsistency in terminology, the term ‘future expectation’ is considered synonymous with ‘prospective of life course’ and ‘future orientation’ (Seginer, 2008). Given this context, future expectation is defined as ‘beliefs or expectations about the likelihood of a specific event occurring in the future’ (Sipsma et al., 2012). Unlike previous studies, future expectation is empirically different from fantasies, wishes, and aspirations (Constantine et al., 1998; Oettingen & Mayer, 2002; Sagy & Adwan, 2006). Instead, it refers to more task-oriented matters, such as how individuals develop their education, career, and organize their family, etc. Therefore, from a temporal perspective, future expectation may be regarded as a cognitive temporal belief, or a ‘bias’ towards the future about their likely attainable goals (Beal & Crockett, 2010; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).

According to previous studies, the measurement of future expectation shows significant inconsistencies. First, many studies assess a single dimension of future expectation, which might refer to aspects such as education, occupation, family, and so on (Sipsma et al., 2012). In a more recent study, according to Dutra-Thomé et al. (2015), future expectations may access by a multiple dimension, which consist of five dimensions: work and education, church and communities, marriage and family, health, and children’s future. Studies (e.g. Sulimani-Aidan et al., 2020) have suggested that limited personal and social resources during adolescence can narrow developmental possibilities in adulthood, adversely impacting an individual’s future. Therefore, increasing personal and social support and connections is crucial for young people to improve their future expectations.

Conceptual framework

To elucidate the mechanism underlying the proposed study, social capital theory was applied. This theory explains how individuals mobilize their tangible and intangible resources in their daily lives to enhance their experiences and improve their well-being. Social capital is typically divided into two types: bridging social capital and bonding social capital (Granovetter, 1973; Putnam, 2000; Williams, 2006). Bridging social capital refers to resources and information located outside of an individual’s immediate social circle, such as the community. In contrast, bonding social capital refers to resources and information received from close individuals, such as family members and peers. In essence, social capital theory describes the accumulation of social resources in different aspects, which ultimately leads to increased well-being.

Previous studies have primarily applied social capital theory in an offline context, with little emphasis on the online perspective. Recent studies suggest that social capital should not be confined to accumulation in offline contexts, but can also be accrued online. Numerous studies have emphasized social media as an important means to share and seek information and opinions (Bigsby & Hovick, 2018; Chen et al., 2021; Ellison et al., 2011; Wen, 2019). Some researchers argue that social media, such as social networking sites, help individuals establish connections and accumulate sustainable social capital (Tiwari et al., 2019; Williams, 2006). Moreover, a study by Yen et al. (2020) emphasized that social media could improve workers’ job performance by enabling them to gather job-related information and enhance problem-solving skills (Lampe & Ellison, 2016).

Regarding the relationship between offline social capital and future expectations, demographic background factors such as parents’ educational level, occupation, and family income have been significant indicators (Behtoui, 2017). Additionally, studies have found a positive relationship between young people’s future expectations and parental and peer support (Behtoui, 2017). In other words, higher levels of socioeconomic status and support are associated with higher levels of future expectations.

In contrast, the online context transcends barriers of distance and time, providing equal accessibility for internet users. According to Coleman's perspective of social capital, the economic capital is weakened in the online aspect, namely the demographic backgrounds, such as parental education and occupation. Instead, unlike the tradition point of view of social capital, younger share the tradition social capital, especially the economic capital and culture from their parents; online social capital emphasizes young people’s own capital, particularly their ability to build personal connections with others and accumulate resources. Some recent studies indicated that online social capital increases Chinese people’s perception of food safety risks during the information exchange process, which can enhance trust among users (Sun & Shang, 2014; Wen, 2019). Therefore, we hypothesize that online social capital is a crucial asset that can increase developmental possibilities for young people across different dimensions. This study aims to explore the relationship between online social capital and adolescents’ future expectations and extends social capital theory to the online context.

In summary, the literature review highlights the importance of social capital and its potential to be accumulated in both offline and online contexts. Furthermore, the review emphasizes the significance of future expectations during adolescence and the potential role of online social capital in shaping these expectations. By incorporating social capital theory and extending it to the online context, this study seeks to explore the relationship between online social capital and young people’s future expectations. Understanding this relationship may provide valuable insights into the role of online social capital in shaping young people’s developmental trajectories and, ultimately, their well-being.

The present study

To synthesize the reviewed literature, previous studies have primarily focused on investigating the impact of offline social capital, while the relationship between online social capital and future expectations remains understudied. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the relationship between online social capital and future expectations among university students.

The main objective of this study is to examine the relationship between online social capital and future expectations. We hypothesize that there is a positive relationship between online social capital and future expectations.

Methodology

Participants

In order to increase the reliability and validity, Hong Kong was selected as a specific location and population in the present study. According to government statistics (Research Office, Legislative Council Secretariat, 2022), the population of young adults aged 18 to 30 in Hong Kong was estimated to be nearly 800,000. In order to calculate the appropriate sample size, a confidence interval of 95%, a significance level of 5%, and a population proportion of 11% were utilized (Calculator Net, n.d.). Based on these parameters, it was determined that a sample size of 151 respondents should be included in the study. The study encompassed a total of 300 undergraduate students from diverse universities and colleges in Hong Kong, resulting in 293 valid cases and achieving a response rate of 97.7%. The participants were selected using convenient sampling. The eligibility criteria were as follows: living in Hong Kong with the right of abode and able to read Chinese.

Procedure

The participants were given informed consent and a set of questionnaires in hard copy, which included two validated scales for assessing online social capital and future expectations. The study was voluntary, and the participants were given incentives. The study procedure was approved by an ethics committee of the institute, and all data collected were kept strictly confidential and anonymous.

Measurements

Internet Social Capital Scale (ISCS): The ISCS was used to measure online social capital. It consisted of 20 items with five Likert points (ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The ISCS included two subscales, online bonding, and online bridging. The internal consistency for the bonding sub-scale and bridging sub-scale were .87 and .75, respectively (Williams, 2006). The higher scores represent to higher online social capital.

Future Expectation Scale for Adolescents (FESA): The FESA was used to measure the degree of future expectation. The FESA included five subscales, namely, working and education, children’s future, marriage and family, church and community, and health. It had 24 items with five Likert scales, ranging from 1 = ‘I do not believe this at all’ to 5 ‘I certainly believe this’. The FESA demonstrated a high internal consistency in the full scale (α = .88) (Dutra-Thomé et al., 2015) and at least an acceptable level of internal consistency for subscales (α = .64–85) (Dutra-Thomé et al., 2015). The higher scores represent to higher future expectation.

Data analysis

Online social capital (including online bonding and online bridging) was the independent variable, and future expectation (including work and education, children’s future, marriage and family, church and community, and health perspectives) was the dependent variable. The data were analysed using SPSS 25.0, and the significant level and confidence interval were estimated as 5% and 95%, respectively.

Descriptive statistics were computed to summarize the characteristics of the participants. Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between online social capital, its subdimensions (bonding and bridging), and future expectations. Multiple regression analyses were performed to determine the predictive value of online social capital on future expectations, while controlling for potential confounding variables, such as age (Haseda et al., 2018), gender (Skrabski et al., 2003), and socioeconomic background (Nieminen et al., 2008). As per the guidelines set by Mickey and Greenland (1989), a significance level of p < .20 was established for the inclusion of variables in the regression model.

Results

In the presented study, 293 valid cases were collected, with a response rate of 97.7%. The average age of the participants was 20.88 (SD = 2.10 years, range = 18–27 years), and 61.2% were female.

Table 1 showed excellent internal consistency (α > .90) for the two full scales used in the study (FESA and ISCS, for detail information, see Appendix A and B), as well as the work and education subscale of the FESA, the online bonding subscale, and the online bridging subscale. The children’s future subscale of the FESA also had high internal consistency (α > .80), while the church and community, marriage and family, and health subscales of the FESA had acceptable internal consistency (α > .70).

Table 1. Reliability and number of items, mean and standard deviations of the ISCS and FESA (n = 292).

	No.	α	Mean	SD
Internet Social Capital Scale (ISCS)	20	.94	63.94	11.99
Online bonding	10	.90	29.06	7.07
Online bridging	10	.93	35.11	6.29
Future Expectation Scale for adolescents (FESA)	24	.95	78.71	17.91
Work and education	7	.92	25.37	5.26
Children’ future	3	.81	9.93	2.74
Marriage and family	5	.78	16.37	4.22
Church and community	5	.70	14.11	5.56
Health	4	.76	13.57	3.01

Number of valid cases for each scale – ISCS: 284, FESA: 277.

These results indicate that the scales used in the study were reliable and consistent in measuring online social capital and future expectations.

Overall, the study found a significant positive correlation between online social capital and future expectations, with both online bonding and online bridging positively correlated with future expectations. The study also found significant positive correlations between online social capital and specific dimensions of future expectations, including work and education, children’s future, marriage and family, church and community, and health.

Online social capital and future expectations

To investigate the relationship between online social capital and future expectations, a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted, and a simple linear regression was used. The results indicated a significant positive correlation between online social capital and future expectations (r = .250, n = 292, p < .001). Additionally, a significant equation was found in the simple linear regression (F (1, 291) = 19.34, p < .001, R² = .063), indicating that online social capital was a significant predictor of future expectations.

In conclusion, the results of the study provide evidence of a positive relationship between online social capital and future expectations among university students in Hong Kong. The findings suggest that online social capital can play an important role in shaping young people’s expectations for their future, particularly in areas such as work and education, children’s future, and relationship and community building. These results have important implications for education and youth development policies, as well as for the design of online platforms and social networking sites that can facilitate the accumulation of online social capital.

Online bonding and future expectations

The Pearson correlation analysis showed that all five subscales of the FESA (work and education, r = .233, n = 291, p < .001; children’s future, r = .213, n = 291, p < .001; marriage and family, r = .252, n = 291, p < .001; church and community, r = .158, n = 291, p < .01; and health, r = .280, n = 291, p < .001) were positively correlated with online bonding. This suggests that online bonding is associated with various aspects of future expectations.

To further examine the predictive effect of online bonding on future expectations, five simple linear regression analyses were conducted. The results showed that significant equations were found for each of the five subscales of the FESA, indicating that online bonding is a significant predictor of future expectations in different areas (see Table 2).

Table 2. Simple linear regression between online bonding and subscales of FESA.

	b	SE	CI	t	R^2	p
Regression model 1
Work and education	.25	.06	.13–.37	4.07	.05	.001***
Regression model 2
Church and community	.25	.09	.07–.43	2.72	.03	.01**
Regression model 3
Marriage and family	.34	.08	.19–.49	4.43	.06	.001***
Regression model 4
Health	.30	.06	.18–.42	4.96	.08	.001***
Regression model 5
Children’s future	.25	.07	.12–.38	3.70	.05	.001***

Valid cases: 290.

In summary, the findings suggest that online bonding is positively associated with various aspects of future expectations and can be a valuable predictor of future expectations among university students in Hong Kong. These results highlight the importance of building and maintaining positive online relationships and networks to enhance young people’s future expectations and well-being.

Online bridging and future expectations

The Pearson correlation analysis revealed that four out of five subscales of future expectation (work and education, r = .295, n = 291, p < .001; children’s future, r = .121, n = 291, p < .05; marriage and family, r = .164, n = 291, p < .01; and health, r = .190, n = 291, p < .001) were positively correlated with online bridging. However, the correlation between online bridging and the church and community subscale was not significant (p = .295).

Further, the simple linear regression analyses showed that online bridging could only predict future expectations in the areas of work and education, children’s future, marriage and family, and health perspectives (see Table 3).

Table 3. Simple linear regression between online bridging and subscales of FESA.

	b	SE	CI	t	R^2	p
Regression model 1
Work and education	.35	.07	.22–.48	5.25	.09	.001***
Regression model 2
Church and community	.11	.10	−.09–.31	1.05	.004	.295(ns)
Regression model 3
Marriage and family	.24	.09	.07–.41	2.82	.03	.01**
Regression model 4
Health	.22	.07	.09–.35	3.29	.04	.001***
Regression model 5
Children’s future	.15	.08	.01–.30	2.06	.02	.05*

Valid cases: 290.

In summary, the findings suggest that online bridging is positively associated with some aspects of future expectations among university students in Hong Kong. However, its predictive effect on future expectations is limited to certain areas. These results highlight the importance of both online bonding and bridging in shaping young people’s future expectations and well-being.

Discussion

In summary, the present study offers several key findings. First, it establishes a positive relationship between online social capital and future expectations. Second, it demonstrates a positive association between online bonding and all five dimensions of future expectations. Third, it reveals that online bridging serves as a significant predictor in enhancing four dimensions of future expectations. As the first empirical investigation of the relationship between online social capital and future expectations, this study represents a noteworthy addition to existing knowledge.

Firstly, a positive association was found between online social capital and future expectations in general, which may show consistency with some previous studies. The results of this study suggest that online social capital similarly has a positive impact on adolescents’ future expectations. The following paragraphs will explain the outcomes in detail, using the perspectives of bonding and bridging in social capital theory.

Secondly, according to the present study, bonding online social capital may contribute to younger individuals’ future expectations, especially in relation to work and education. This displayed the strongest association when compared with the other four factors. This result is consistent with some previous studies (e.g. Behtoui, 2017). Drawing from social capital theory, social capital assists individuals in accumulating social resources, leading to positive outcomes in different aspects, especially in education. According to Coleman (1988), social capital referred to the inherent qualities and subsequent benefits that occur between groups through interaction within the group members. In this sense, opportunities, motivation, and capability are the core elements for the development and accumulation of online social capital in an educational setting (Adler & Kwon, 2002). In the online context, any online platforms provide a space for younger individuals to share and interact with others, which may refer to the first core element of having a chance to accumulate online social capital, namely, opportunities. Then, those young individuals who share similarities in any way, for instance, facing similar difficulties, life goals, or even familiarity with the same language, can establish ties. This may refer to the concept of (online) bonding social capital (Venter, 2019).

According to Erikson (1963), young people are in the transition period between stage 4 (identity vs. confusion) and stage 5 (intimacy vs. isolation). During this stage, they may face similar problems in shaping their identity, establishing relationships with others, and dealing with educational issues, etc. Young individuals use the internet to collect and seek information when they are facing difficulties, which may also refer to the second core element, namely motivation. By developing strong bonding ties online, network closure may foster mutual collaboration (Burt, 2004), which further facilitates the exchange of information and/or resources within supportive relationships (Carceller et al., 2015; Oztok et al., 2013). Lastly, through online exchanges, young people may gain more knowledge on how to cope with the difficulties they face, which refers to the concept of capability. Beyond education, young people may also apply the same mechanism to marriage and family, their children’s future, and health conditions.

Thirdly, this study found that online bridging effectively aids adolescents in accumulating capital and improving their future expectations across most areas, with the exception of church and community. Unlike online bonding social capital, the concept of bridging online social capital plays a beneficial role in closing social distances between unconnected individuals (Granovetter, 1973). This is because weak connections function as bridges, linking strangers and closing the gaps between people from all walks of life (Valenzuela et al., 2009). Previous studies found that the inhibition of new ideas was a major drawback of relying solely on bonding relationships (Chen et al., 2012). In other words, individuals who develop wider connections in diverse networks potentially access more resources than those who only connect within close networks. Generally, young individuals who connect and interact with a wide range of people gain more diverse opinions and resources from outsiders. This may stimulate them to explore alternative ideas and resources to assist them in planning their future. With no restrictions on distance and time, the Internet maximizes the function of online bridging social capital. These findings imply that online bridging social capital should be considered an individual asset that bolsters future expectations. It can be employed to further future planning and development in different areas, such as education, work, and relationship-building.

Future research could examine the comparative efficacy of offline and online social capital on future expectations and devise a theoretical model integrating offline and online social capital concepts to study future expectations. In general, this study bears significant implications for different stakeholder in the society (i.e. researchers, educational professionals, mental health practitioners, and social workers) engaged in supporting adolescents with their future planning and development. Specifically, as mentioned in the literature review, online social capital can be acquired and accumulated beyond geographical boundaries. The present study holds significant implications for university students in the following three areas:

Firstly, online social capital can enhance career opportunities by expanding students’ networks. It enables them to connect with international professionals and potential employers from around the world, broadening their career prospects. Secondly, online social capital fosters global collaboration and knowledge exchange. By connecting with peers, scholars, and experts online from different countries and cultures, university students can engage in international discussions and research initiatives, contributing to their personal and academic growth. Thirdly, online social capital promotes cultural understanding and empathy. University students can participate in cross-cultural dialogues, such as interacting with individuals from diverse backgrounds through various social networking sites and forums. This exposure allows them to learn about different perspectives and develop intercultural communication skills, contributing to a more interconnected world. By connecting with people online, the exchange of online social capital is further facilitated, benefiting university students in terms of career opportunities, global collaboration, knowledge acquisition, cultural understanding, and personal growth.

Limitations

The present study has several limitations that future research should address. First, from the methodological perspective, the study employed a one-time measurement with convenience sampling, which may not accurately capture the long-term process of social capital accumulation and its influence on future expectations and may generate some sampling bias. Future studies should consider using repeated measurements or adopting longitudinal designs and other reliable sampling methods to explore the relationship between different forms of social capital and future expectations at various time points.

Second, the study focused solely on online social capital without examining its relationship with other forms of capital or considering the impact of individual socioeconomic factors. Future research should investigate the relationship between online social capital and other forms of capital, such as cultural and economic capital, and explore how individual socioeconomic factors may moderate the relationship between social capital and future expectations.

In conclusion, while the present study offers valuable insights into the relationship between online social capital and future expectations among university students in Hong Kong, future research should address these limitations and examine the influence of different forms of capital and individual socioeconomic factors on the relationship between social capital and future expectations.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express their gratitude to all participants who contributed to this study by taking the time to complete the surveys. Their valuable input and cooperation are greatly appreciated.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Appendix A

Item Mean and Standard Deviation for Internet Social Capital Scale

Item	Mean	S.D.
1. There are several people online I trust to help solve my problems.	2.98	.84
2. There is someone online I can turn to for advice about making very important decisions.	2.9	.89
3. There is no one online that I feel comfortable talking to about intimate personal problems. (reversed)	2.78	1.14
4. When I feel lonely, there are several people online I can talk to.	3.36	.96
5. If I needed an emergency loan of $500, I know someone online I can turn to.	2.47	1.08
6. The people I interact with online would put their reputation on the line for me.	2.55	1.13
7. The people I interact with online would be good job references for me.	2.75	1.03
8. The people I interact with online would share their last dollar with me.	2.65	1.01
9. I do not know people online well enough to get them to do anything important. (reversed)	2.76	1.055
10. The people I interact with online would help me fight an injustice.	3.02	.83
11. Interacting with people online makes me interested in things that happen outside of my town.	3.55	.77
12. Interacting with people online makes me want to try new things.	3.64	.70
13. Interacting with people online makes me interested in what people unlike me are thinking.	3.67	.78
14. Talking with people online makes me curious about other places in the world.	3.76	.77
15. Interacting with people online makes me feel like part of a larger community.	3.42	.80
16. Interacting with people online makes me feel connected to the bigger picture.	3.47	.73
17. Interacting with people online reminds me that everyone in the world is connected.	3.42	.87
18. I am willing to spend time to support general online community activities.	3.36	.80
19. Interacting with people online gives me new people to talk to.	3.51	.88
20. Online, I come in contact with new people all the time	3.31	.89

5-point scale, 5 = strongly agree; 1 = strongly disagree

Appendix B

Item Mean and Standard Deviation for Future Expectation Scale for Adolescents (FESA)

	Mean	S.D.
1. I will achieve the level of education that I want	3.93	.93
2. I will provide a safe place for my children to live	3.59	1.08
3. I will get married	3.60	1.23
4. I will regularly go to mass or other religious services	2.49	1.47
5. I will have a healthy diet	3.67	.84
6. I will find a good job	3.73	.92
7. I will find a steady job	3.74	.90
8. I will get married before I am 25 years old	2.84	1.27
9. I will be a leader in my community	2.70	1.05
10. I will have children	3.14	1.10
11. I will have good health	3.60	.94
12. I will accomplish what I want to do with my life	3.52	.93
13. I will acquire the things that I want	3.58	.95
14. My marriage will last forever	3.13	1.20
15. I will do volunteer work in my community	3.05	1.19
16. I will have a long life	3.22	.94
17. I will find a job that I enjoy	3.44	.96
18. My children will have a long life	3.20	1.05
19. I will dedicate time to spend with my family	3.4692	1.08
20. I will participate in many church activities	2.37	1.40
21. I will participate in sports or another type of regular exercise	3.07	1.21
22. I will always have enough resources to eat and to live on	3.56	.91
23. My children will live in peace	3.33	1.05
24. I will instil faith in my children or nieces and nephews	3.36	1.19

5-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘I do not believe this at all’ to ‘I certainly believe this’