Fragile states, climate change, conflict and violence: Exploring the boundaries of resilience and adaptability from a gender perspective

Violence begets violence: the context

War and conflict is arguably the most counter-productive and destructive of pursuits. Yet that does not mean that states and non-state actors refrain from engaging in armed conflict to achieve their objectives. The state is structured in such a way that resorting to military action in either an offensive or defensive move is ensured by a military that is generally well-resourced, capacitated and able to take decisive action at short notice. Equally, the proliferation of small arms affords non-state actors the ability to exert violence, spreading panic, chaos and even death where power, natural resources, ideology or territory are desired.

Africa has been beset by conflict since independence from colonial rule (Maddox 2018) and has been the most “grievously afflicted by forced migration” as a result (Guest 2004, p. 12). Survival of the civilian population often hinges on forced migration in search of safety and security. During conflict, women are often specific targets and suffer disproportionately. Historically, women have had less autonomy over migration choices. Yet evidence shows that a growing number of women are making individual migration decisions and moving more than ever to meet their own or their families’ economic needs (Pophiwa 2014). At the end of 2022, 108.4 million people around the world were forcibly displaced; the highest number ever recorded. Of these, 50% were women (Bohland et al. 2024). In 2024, this number is set to increase by 5.4 million (Danish Refugee Council 2024). Displaced women and girls are exposed to violence and exclusion, both in respect of their lived reality as well as the content of the law itself (Gleeson 2023, p. 42). ‘Broken’ is how Betts and Collier (2017) describe the system designed to protect refugees and other persons requiring protection, leaving little hope that forced migrants will enjoy complete freedom, safety and security.

Vladimir Tretchikoff, like many well-known figures, was himself a refugee. In 1917, when the Russian Revolution occurred, he and his family abandoned their property and fled to China. By sheer coincidence we came across Hanli Smit’s beautiful photograph ‘Homage to Tretchikoff’, which she permitted us to use as the cover of this issue. We interpret this photograph as the quintessential depiction of an African migrant woman. Burdened by the few worldly possessions she can carry on her head and on her body, she flees. But there is always that glimmer of hope of finding safety and security – and even prosperity and wealth.

Increasingly, new threats are arising. Nevitt (2021) convincingly argues that climate change is a threat to international peace and security, likely to exponentially increase conflict. Women are also 14 times more likely to die in disasters than men (UNDP 2022). Undoubtedly, political violence, conflict, climate change, inequality and displacement are gendered. Regardless of the existence of war, the impact of climate change or more localised conflict, women do not escape their triple roles of production, reproduction, and community. Moreover, women migrants face xenophobia and exploitation at a disproportionate level (Mbiyozo 2018).

Applying feminist methodology

In this issue of Agenda, a common theme is the stated intent to confront women’s voicelessness which has the effect of undermining issues of particular relevance to women (Charlesworth, Chinkin & Wright 1991, p. 621; Chinkin, Charlesworth & Wright 2005, p. 17). Another ambition is to encourage decision makers to “acknowledge and respond to the gendering of politics and of women’s relationship to the state” (Anker 2022, p. 133). Displaced women routinely assert that donors and humanitarian workers only ever provide what is absolutely necessary for survival. What is ignored are women’s strategic gender needs; those resources that offer displaced women opportunities to achieve or maintain levels of self-determination, as well as to make decisions that affect their lives. Within this context, gendered theoretical frameworks have been skillfully employed not simply as a blunt tool for analysis, but also as a lens through which data is interpreted, revealing insights into the complexities of gender dynamics. Notable in this regard are the capacities and vulnerabilities analysis frameworks founded on the premise that people’s capacities and vulnerabilities determine the way they respond to or are affected by crisis. Indeed, evidence reveals that when women are able to play a substantive role in decision-making, their individual and collective identities undergo positive transformations (Williamson 2012, pp. 3-7). We like to believe that this is exactly what Stephen Jay Gould had in mind in The Mismeasure of Man (1981) when he wrote: “Few tragedies can be more extensive than the stunting of life, few injustices deeper than the denial of an opportunity to strive or even to hope, by a limit imposed from without, but falsely identified as lying within.” Pushed to take action in the face of fear amidst violent conflict, many women embrace the opportunity to exercise their agency, freeing them from the confines of cultural norms and societal expectations that erode their feelings of self-worth and dignity.

The pieces in this issue lead readers through a journey that explores various dimensions of gender and displacement in different contexts. Divided into four distinct but interrelated parts, this issue begins with three specific case studies on women’s experiences in displacement and conflict, moving on to gender dimensions in military and peace-building contexts. This is followed by an examination of gender-based violence and conflict, with empirical evidence identifying a close relationship between violence, militarism and toxic masculinity. Ultimately, the issue navigates the more contemporary issues of displacement due to persecution against members of the LGBTI + community and the gender-specific impacts of climate change.

“Nervous conditions” and broken systems

Recalling that the massive exodus of Zimbabweans to South Africa is the result of deteriorating economic conditions and widespread disturbance of the public order, Emma Chikovore and Pranitha Maharaj highlight that although large numbers of Zimbabwean women have elected to migrate to South Africa (two million people between 2003 and 2009 (Betts & Collier p. 45)), it is their experiences and voices that are absent from the discourse on survival strategies. Their study facilitated candid responses from Zimbabwean women who, while grateful for the opportunities that they have in South Africa, articulate their “permanently temporary” situation, exacerbated by the Department of Home Affairs’ ill-conceived cancellation of the Zimbabwe Exemption Permit, which is now scheduled to expire in 2025. Moreover, Zimbabweans experience what the Zimbabwean author Tsitsi Dangarembga describes as “a painful nervous condition of ambivalence; uncertainty … inside and outside, an otherness within”: they are simultaneously integrated into South African society but maintain financial and social bonds with those who remain in Zimbabwe (Dangarembga, pp. 78, 117) and know that they may ultimately have to return to Zimbabwe against their will.

The two pieces focusing specifically on Cameroon complement each other, in that the first deals with internal displacement of approximately 500 000 Cameroonians in forests and cities in Cameroon. The defining feature of internally displaced persons (IDPs) is that they have not crossed an international border, whereas refugees have crossed an international border; the latter being the category of persons dealt with in the second piece. Here it is the situation of refugees from the Central African Republic (and other neighbouring countries) who have sought refuge in Cameroon that is dealt with. In the first of these two pieces, Sirri Nche and Joyce Endeley explore the empowerment of internally displaced women in Bamenda in the north west of Cameroon, challenging the typical portrayal of women as passive victims in contexts of war and displacement. It utilises feminist standpoint theory and the capacities and vulnerabilities analysis framework to emphasise the active role of these women in overcoming adversity and redefining their lives. The authors outline the changing nature of armed conflicts and their impact on civilians, particularly women, who are often forced to assume multiple roles and responsibilities amidst limited resources. The 2018 armed conflict in Cameroon led to increased internal displacement, with significant proportions of those affected being women and children. Despite the hardships, this piece refutes the well-worn myth that women within war and displacement contexts are vulnerable, passive victims, revealing that some of the IDPs interviewed admit that they have developed appropriate coping strategies, even resulting in them “discovering and realizing their dreams”, and securing a better quality of life than before they migrated. In particular, many of the IDPs have become empowered by the challenges that they faced. The study calls for more comprehensive efforts to address the root causes of displacement and to consider individual needs through targeted needs assessments. Further research is recommended to examine the livelihoods of displaced women, the challenges faced by their host communities, the effects of displacement on mental health and productivity, and the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions in conflict-affected regions.

The piece by Noella Epie and Joyce Endeley locates the plight of refugees squarely within the remit of international organisations that are responsible for the interventions and programmes to protect refugees, but who are blind to feminist perspectives, culminating in the interventions not succeeding in empowering women. This piece also makes it clear that violence is a constant threat: conflict leads to the breakdown of society and social norms and disregard for the rule of law. Rape and sexual violence is often used as a weapon in the conflict. Thus, even when refuge from violent conflict has ostensibly been found, women continue to be subjected to violence in refugee camps. Imbuing the management and protection of refugees with a gender-sensitive lens would ameliorate the majority of the violations that women refugees suffer. The imperative of eradicating all forms of violence in refugee camps is pronounced by the reality that refugees can remain in camps for in excess of 30 years, according to Collier and Betts (2017, pp. 53-54). It is not surprising, therefore, that when confined to refugee camps that are poorly resourced, lack of access to food increases the risk of prostitution and sexual harassment, trafficking, malnutrition, and survival sex.

Belonging, but not belonging

The well-resourced, capacitated and efficient military that is at the disposal of a state to enforce sovereign integrity is the subject of Knightingale Mmakola’s piece. South Africa’s military viewed through the prism of the Hoedspruit Air Force Base is where Mmakola undertook the study of the experiences of women in a masculine and largely exclusionary setting. The study identifies deep-rooted gender discrimination as a significant challenge, rooted in the military’s hegemonic masculine culture, which devalues traits traditionally associated with femininity such as empathy and nurturance. Women officers are often perceived as weak and are marginalised within the institution, affecting their participation in decision-making and exposing them to gendered and racial discrimination, as well as sexual harassment. The rigorous physical requirements of military training are particularly burdensome for women, who may not be as physically prepared as men for certain tasks and are often misunderstood by their male instructors, especially regarding issues related to menstruation. The cultural and institutional resistance to female soldiers is reinforced by societal norms and the media, which perpetuate the ideal of the male soldier and sideline women's roles. The article underscores the necessity for improvement in addressing these challenges, advocating for the full integration and equal treatment of women in the military. It suggests that current practices within the South African military inhibit women’s ability to exercise their autonomy and contribute effectively to the organisation. The author calls for the deconstruction of gender norms and a restructuring of the military’s social order to facilitate women’s empowerment and visibility within the armed forces.

The harm of haram

The kidnapping of 276 school girls in Nigeria in 2014 is just one of the multitude of incidents characterising the precarious security situation in northern Nigeria. Persecution, causing widespread fear, based on gender and religious reasons is the modus operandi of Boko Haram, but cattle rustling by Fulani militia has also resulted in destruction of property and loss of life. More generally, northern Nigeria has been embroiled in violent religious conflict between Christians and Muslims for over three decades. Profiling the role of women peacebuilders through the Fellowship of Churches of Christ in Nigeria (TEKAN) with a view to resolving the ongoing conflict is the central objective of the piece by Mubarak Tukur. Made prominent, however, is that despite women driving sustainable solutions, their contributions are often excluded from conflict prevention and peace-seeking efforts. This is notwithstanding the valuable contribution of the members of the TEKAN Peace Desk in assisting traumatised and displaced communities to find constructive ways to deal with conflict and transform it into a positive driver of social change.

Trauma healing has been a new way to assist the depressed victims of the Boko Haram insurgencies. When participants become more relaxed and can talk of past hurt and pain, many of the victims will gain a sense of relief. In most cases, after the trauma healing workshop, even though the participants were reluctant to forgive those who caused them pain, they were willing to try and forgive them.

Focusing on two of the most fragile and unstable states in Africa (if not the world) is the insightful piece by Anna Tazita Samuel, Yusra Ali Adan, Vicci Tallis, Amina Ahmed Adhan and Fiona Shanahan. Somalia and South Sudan epitomise the double jeopardy of people caught in the quagmire of fleeing conflict and climate disasters. Abduction and rape of women and girls by armed groups is common, but so is the stigmatisation of survivors of gender-based violence, with a ‘culture of silence’ prevailing. Detailing the role of two local non-governmental organisations (Women for Change in South Sudan and Active in Development Aid in Somalia), supported by international organisations, the piece reflects the outcomes, lessons and achievements derived from a feminist participatory action research project with women affected by gender-based violence. This paper is a response to the African Union’s ‘Agenda 2063 – The Africa We Want’ which commits African states to establishing “an Africa, whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women” and brings women-led, feminist leadership to the forefront to shift oppressive power dynamics. This need is particularly acute in Somalia and South Sudan where traditional leadership and decision-making is the preserve of males.

Participatory peace processes

An illustration of women as agents and proponents of sustainable change is captured in the piece by Dizline Shozi and Crispin Hemson. Since 1938, Njobokazi village in KwaZulu-Natal has been embroiled in faction fighting. By July 1992, the community were forced to flee their homes due to the violent conflict perpetrated on account of intolerance for supporting alternative political parties. The article draws on Johan Galtung's theories of violence and peace, emphasising the need for a positive, sustainable peace that transforms societal structures rather than merely halting conflict. The research utilises a participatory action research approach, engaging women in all phases to uncover how the conflict has historically impacted them and to explore their contributions to the peace process. The study reveals that women often bore the brunt of violence, having to deal with the aftermath of male-initiated conflicts and assuming additional responsibilities when men were absent due to fighting. Despite this, women demonstrated agency by lobbying against violence, facilitating communication between warring factions, and participating in peace-building discussions and ceremonies. The research also highlights the complexities faced by male researchers when working with female participants and the ethical considerations in conducting such studies in violence-affected areas. The findings indicate that although traditionally seen as peacemakers, women's roles in conflict and peacebuilding are multifaceted and crucial. They have the potential to influence and redefine gender relations, especially when included from the onset of conflict resolution initiatives.

The family home is a hostile environment

Unveiling the persecution of members of the LGBTIQ + community in Zimbabwe is undertaken by Gabi Mkhize and Liberty Mambondiani. This paper confirms that people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual, intersex or queer experience severe impacts on their livelihood, health, access to housing, infrastructure and education, security, social life and environment (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre 2019). Due to severe persecution and discrimination from state and non-state actors, many LGBTIQ + individuals are forced to leave their homes and communities in search of safety. This study uncovers that displacement is not always due to overt violence but can also occur silently as a response to fear, rejection, and psychological exhaustion, termed concealed displacement. Key findings indicate that the Zimbabwean government's stance has fostered a climate of fear among LGBTIQ + persons, leading to their migration and displacement. This is exacerbated by societal rejection and the threat of community violence. The study challenges the common narrative that displacement occurs only due to public war and violence, highlighting the less visible but equally compelling drivers behind the migration of LGBTIQ + individuals. Additionally, the study discusses the challenges faced by LGBTIQ + individuals in accessing safe havens, with countries like South Africa presenting both legal support and practical obstacles for migrants and refugees. It also notes the exacerbation of discrimination during crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, where LGBTIQ + individuals were scapegoated for societal ills. The study argues for the recognition of concealed displacement as a form of forced migration, driven by the intersectionality of heteronormative beliefs and the lack of social safety for LGBTIQ + individuals, calling for a nuanced understanding of displacement beyond the visible consequences of war and violence.

Time for change against climate change

The unrelenting adverse impact of climate change and climate-induced displacement is the topic of Rufaro Chikuruwo’s piece that advocates a gender-centric approach to climate resilience and policy-making. The dark irony that in the 21st century the Lake Chad Basin has lost over 90% of its surface area, whereas it was historically renowned for being the lifeblood of millions of people in at least four different states, is made explicit. This work highlights the unique vulnerabilities and critical roles women play within their communities. With nearly 10 million people affected, the paper calls attention to significant ecological transformations due to climatic shifts, particularly impacting women who rely on the region's biodiversity for their livelihoods. It outlines a comprehensive roadmap for interventions, such as investing in water-saving technologies, providing alternative livelihood training, ensuring access to health services, and creating economic participation platforms for advocacy. The importance of cross-border collaboration and robust monitoring systems is also emphasised, aiming to establish a replicable template for addressing gendered vulnerabilities globally and promoting inclusive, just, and effective climate action.

We trust that you will find this issue inspiring and interesting. We are especially optimistic that the feminist methodologies and theories that have been applied in these papers can be extrapolated to other related work, so that a coherent body of feminist jurisprudence can develop. In this regard, we wish to gratefully thank two notable experts in migration issues, Aimée-Noël Mbiyozo and Theresa Velcaro Alcamp, for their significant contribution to ensuring that this issue came to fruition.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Lee Stone

LEE STONE is an Associate Professor in the Department of Public, Constitutional and International Law at the University of South Africa (UNISA). She is the Chair of the Board of Directors of Agenda Feminist Media; a Board Member of Geopolitical Intelligence Advisory (a non-governmental organisation in South Africa); and an Attorney of the High Court of South Africa, having completed Articles of Clerkship at Legal Resources Centre. Previously, Lee held a research position in the Refugee Rights Project at Lawyers for Human Rights, South Africa; worked for the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights in The Gambia and was a Legal Officer at the Institute for Human Rights and Development in Africa (a Pan-African NGO based in The Gambia). From 2007 she was a lecturer at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, before moving to UNISA in 2014. Between 2010 and 2023 she was a Visiting Professor at Saint Augustine’s University in Mwanza, Tanzania. She has published widely in the areas of international criminal law, the African regional human rights system, refugee law, gender and the law and constitutional, international and human rights law. Email: [email protected]

Rufaro Emily Chikuruwo

RUFARO EMILY CHIKURUWO is an environmental law researcher. Her research delves into indigenous law, climate change policies, and the intersection of human rights and environmental protection. As a postdoctoral fellow at UNISA, she combines rigorous research with administrative prowess, producing influential publications and fostering academic collaborations. Her commitment to legal academia and environmental advocacy positions her as an emerging leading voice in global environmental law discourse. Email: [email protected]