Cooperative federalism with Chinese characteristics

ABSTRACT

In China, the dynamics of the central–local relations vary significantly within legislative, executive, and judicial branches. In the field of law enforcement oversight, signs of cooperative federalism have emerged, presenting a drastic contrast to the unitary system. The lacking of a legal basis to directly supervise local governments forces the National People’s Congress Standing Committee to actively seek cooperation from local governments. Three different approaches have been applied by the top legislature to achieve the goal. Easing the resistance from local governments through delegating the oversight power represents a move of compromise. Removing hurdles affecting law enforcement, reducing law enforcement cost, and soliciting suggestions on statutory revision from localities is a form of reciprocity. Eliminating local protectionism, enhancing cross-regional law enforcement, and sharing law enforcement experiences is an act of altruism.

KEYWORDS:

• Law enforcement oversight
• central–local relations
• cooperative federalism
• mutual benefits

Notes

1 Edward S Corwin, ‘The Passing of Dual Federalism’ (1950) 36 Virginia Law Review 1–24. A functional theory for cooperative federalism, see Roderick M Hills Jr., ‘The Political Economy of Cooperative Federalism: Why State Autonomy Makes Sense and ‘Dual Sovereignty’ Doesn’t’ (1998) 96 Michigan Law Review 813.

2 Peter Bußjäger, ‘Austrian Federalism in Comparative Perspective’ in Günter Bischof and Ferdinand Karlhofer (eds), Austria’s Cooperative Federalism (University of New Orleans Press, 2015) 16.

3 Martha Field, ‘The Differing Federalisms of Canada and the United States’ (1992) 55 Law & Contemporary Problems 107, 118.

4 Donald P Kommers, The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany (2nd edn, Duke University Press, 1997) 69.

5 Robert Schütze, From Dual to Cooperative Federalism: The Changing Structure of European Law (Oxford University Press, 2009) 242.

6 Zheng Yongnian, De Facto Federalism in China: Reforms and Dynamics of Central-Local Relations (Qiu Tao tr, Oriental Press, 2013). See also Sunita Parikh and Barry R Weingast, ‘A Comparative Theory of Federalism: India’ (1997) 83 Virginia Law Review 1593.

7 See Cabriella Montinola, Yingyi Qian and Barry R. Weingast, ‘Federalism, Chinese Style: The Political Basis for Economic Success in China’ (1995) 48 World Politics 50–81. See also Yingyi Qian and Barry R Weingast, ‘Federalism as A Commitment to Preserving Market Incentives’ (1997) 11 Journal of Economic Perspectives 83–92.

8 Zhou Li’an, ‘The Study on the Tournament Model of Promotion for Local Officials in China’ (中国地方官员的晋升锦标赛模式研究) (2007) 7 Economic Research Journal 36–50; Zhou Feizhou, ‘The Tournament System’ (竞标赛体制) (2009) 3 Sociological Studies 54–77.

9 Ding Huang and Ding Mingjie, ‘Where There is a Policy from the Superior, There is a Countermeasure from the Inferior: Case Analysis and Implications’ (‘上有政策、下有对策’——案例分析与博弈启示) (2004) 6 Journal of Wuhan University, 804–809.

10 See Zhou Li’an, Local Government in Transition (转型中的地方政府) (Shanghai People’s Press, 2008) 71.

11 Linda Chelan Li, ‘Transcending the Zero-Sum Game: Central-local Relations in Contemporary China’ (跨越零和：思考当代中国的中央地方关系) (2004) 6 Journal of Central China Normal University 121.

12 Linda Chelan Li, ‘Central-Local Relations in the People’s Republic of China: Trends, Processes, and Impacts for Policy Implementation’ (2010) 30 Public Administration & Development 177–190.

13 Linda Chelan Li, see supra note 11, at 122.

14 Article 89 of Constitution [宪法] (promulgated by NPC, 4 December 1982, effective 4 December 1982, amended 2018) art. 89 section 3&4 (1982), available in English at <http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/constitution.html> (All constitutional quotations in this Article refer to this translation) accessed 14 November 2022.

15 Article 127 of Constitution [宪法].

16 See Article 67 of Constitution [宪法].

17 Law enforcement oversight, also referred to as ‘law enforcement inspection’ or ‘law enforcement examination’, was first created in early 1980s by local people’s congresses (‘LPC’) as a major oversight tool against the government. The NPCSC began to practice such kind of oversight in mid-1980s and has since regarded it as a major oversight mechanism. Detailed description on law enforcement oversight by LPC, see Young Nam Cho, Local People’s Congresses in China: Development and Transition (Cambridge University Press, 2009) 55–58.

18 These findings have been made primarily through the reading of dozens of the NPCSC’s official reports on law enforcement oversight. Annually, the NPCSC organizes five or six law enforcement oversight campaigns, each one of which focuses on one national statute. According to the Supervision Law, after finishing on-site investigations in the provinces, the NPCSC’s law enforcement oversight group, which usually includes President or Vice Presidents of the NPCSC and several its members, shall submit and present the oversight report to the whole session of the NPCSC meeting. The report introduces the background and the process of the oversight, highlights the successes and achievements in law enforcement, exposes both problems in law enforcement and loopholes in law itself, and proposes suggestions on how to improve law enforcement. These law enforcement oversight reports are all published on the NPCSC’s Gazette. Therefore, the reports are authentic and irreplaceable sources to observe and investigate the interactions among various players involved, including the relationship between the NPCSC and local governments.

19 This conclusion is not intended to erase the unitary character of China’s central-local relations. Rather, it is hoped that the findings presented here can not only diversify the portrait of the central–local relations in China, but proves that cooperative federalism can and does exist in a unitary system.

20 Article 67 of Constitution [宪法].

21 Ibid. In the meantime, this supervisory power has been considered for a long time not to include law enforcement oversight. See Lin Yan, ‘From Self-Empowerment, to Political Precedent, to Statutory Power – the Birth of the Law Enforcement Oversight Power of the NPCSC’ (从自我创设，到政治惯例，到法定权力——全国人大常委会执法检查权的确立过程) (2009), 3 Tsinghua Law Review 5–25.

22 See Several Provisions on Strengthening Law Enforcement Oversight [关于加强对法律实施情况检查监督的若干规定] (promulgated by NPCSC, 2 September 1993, effective 2 September 1993, invalid since June 2009).

23 See Articles 105 and 107 of Constitution [宪法]. For this reason, the local government often becomes the defendant in administrative litigation, although most law enforcement activities are carried out by its departments. That is also why the NPCSC’s law enforcement oversight shall involve local governments, though they are not treated as the target of oversight.

24 Cui Wen Liang, ‘The Overview of the NPCSC’s Law Enforcement Oversight in 1999’ [全国人大常委会1999年执法检查综述] (2000) [People’s Daily], October 26, 2000.

25 Southern and eastern provinces received more visits from the NPCSC than their northern and western counterparts, although it was widely believed that the overall law enforcement situation was better in the former than the latter. Yan (n 21), at 18.

26 From the early 1980s, ‘supervising according to the law (依法监督)’ has become the most important principle on oversight for the NPCSC. Peng Zhen, the former Chairman of the NPCSC, famously summarized the principle into the following two parts: ‘do not neglect the duty, and do not exceed the duty’ (不失职，不越权). See Peng Zhen, On Building Democracy and Rule of Law in New Era (论新时期的社会主义民主与法制建设) (Central Party Literature Press, 1989) 362.

27 See Several Opinions on Improving Law Enforcement Oversight of the NPCSC [关于改进全国人大常委会执法检查工作的几点意见] (promulgated by NPCSC, 23 April 1999).

28 See Chen Yong, ‘On Several Issues of the Law Enforcement Inspection’ (关于执法检查的的几个问题) (1994) 2 China Legal Science 61–66.

29 See Li Qiusheng, ‘Dilemmas and Issues of the NPCSC’s Law Enforcement Inspection’ (人大执法检查中存在的矛盾和问题) (1997) 12 People's Congress Studies 4–8; Cheng Zhuohong, ‘Research on Several Issues of Law Enforcement Inspection’ (关于执法检查若干问题的研究) (1998) 1 People's Congress Studies 4–8.

30 See supra note 27.

31 See supra note 27.

32 It is worth noting that it is both unwise and risky for the NPCSC to rely exclusively on the local people’s congresses to conduct law enforcement inspection. In reality, the local people’s congresses may either be captured or face unbearable pressure from their executive branch when displaying oversight functions. As a result, they may not be brave and diligent enough to expose law enforcement problems in their jurisdiction.

33 Articles 25 and 27 of Law on Supervision of People’s Congresses Standing Committees [中华人民共和国各级人民代表大会常务委员会监督法] (promulgated by NPCSC, 27 August 2006, effective 1 January 2007).

34 For example, in the law enforcement inspection of the Statistics Law in 2004, the inspection team put forward a few rectification opinions to the Zhejiang Provincial Government. Lu Songting, Vice Chairman of the Provincial People’s Congress Standing Committee, subsequently asked the provincial government to seriously rectify. See Wang Wei, ‘The NPC Conducts Law Enforcement Inspections in Zhejiang Province’ (全国人大对浙江省进行执法检查), <http://www.npc.gov.cn/huiyi/lfzt/tjfxd/2004-11/10/content_1461783.htm≥.

35 See ‘The NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Team to Give Feedback to the Beijing Municipal Government’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组向北京市反馈意见) <http://www.suji.com.cn/html/news/info/old/20070321/3672.html>.

36 Du Pengju, ‘The NPCSC Environmental Protection Law Enforcement Inspection Team Gives Feedback to Our Province’ (全国人大常委会环保执法检查组向我省反馈意见) Shaanxi Daily (2006) <https://news.sohu.com/20060613/n243706605.shtml>.

37 Fan Liping, ‘Shanghai Shall be a Model for Implementing the Environmental Impact Assessment Law’ (上海要成为实施环评法的榜样) Wenhui Daily (2008) <https://news.sina.com.cn/o/2008-06-23/081914059632s.shtml>.

38 Ibid.

39 ‘Guangdong Province Earnestly Responds to Suggestions from the Law Enforcement Inspection Team on the Law on Overseas Chinese Protection, Striving for Concrete Results’ (广东省认真落实侨法执法检查整改工作务求实效) <http://www.chinaqw.com/zgqj/qjdt/200706/22/76950.shtml>; Qiu Dajun, ‘The NPC’s Overseas Chinese Committee Investigates Law Enforcement Inspection Rectification Work in Hainan’ (全国人大华侨委员会在海南调研执法检查整改工作) Hainan Daily (2007) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c722/200705/d41a546112d245218de6285fcfa4a053.shtml>.

40 ‘Henan Provincial Construction Department’s Notice on the Rectification of the Issues Concerning the NPCSC’s Enforcement Inspection of the Law on Architecture’ (河南省建设厅关于对全国人大〈建筑法〉执法检查提出问题进行整改的通知) (2003) <https://www.lawlawing.com/community/321331>.

41 ‘Shaanxi Effectively Implements the Rectification Work of the NPC’s Law Enforcement Inspection of the Overseas Chinese Protection Act’ (陕西切实落实全国人大侨法执法检查各项整改工作) (2007) China Overseas Chinese Network <https://www.chinaqw.com/zgqj/qjdt/200706/21/76791.shtml>.

42 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Labor Contract Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查《中华人民共和国劳动合同法》实施情况的报告) (2008) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c12491/200812/603e2acac84f41f5891c22930ee4017d.shtml>.

43 For example, the NPCSC recommended the establishment of a national food safety risk assessment centre and received a positive response from the latter. See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Food Safety Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查《中华人民共和国食品安全法》实施情况的报告) (2010) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/zfjc/spaqfzfjc/2010-05/10/content_1867144.htm>. On October 13, 2011, the National Food Safety Risk Assessment Center was officially established in Beijing. See ‘National Food Safety Risk Assessment Center Launched in Beijing’ (国家食品安全风险评估中心在京成立) (2011) <http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2011-10/13/content_1968663.htm>.

44 For example, the 2010 Agricultural Technology Promotion Law inspection report stated that ‘ensure that the agricultural technicians working in the front line are not less than two-thirds of the total agricultural technicians in the county, and the proportion of professional agricultural technicians in the total establishment is not less than 80%.’ The proposal was adopted in the legal revision. See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Agricultural Technology Promotion Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查《中华人民共和国农业技术推广法》实施情况的报告) (2010) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/lfzt/nyjstgfxza/2010-10/28/content_1792344.htm>.

45 For example, some reports mentioned that ‘due to limited funds, the necessary high-end equipment is unable to invest, and the on-site rapid inspection capability is not suitable for actual needs, resulting in a weak overall inspection and testing capability in China’. See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Food Safety Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查《中华人民共和国食品安全法》实施情况的报告) (2011) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c12491/201107/a28927b1f19f47f3ac161e31b7ec5e32.shtml>.

46 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Labor Contract Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查《中华人民共和国劳动合同法》实施情况的报告) (2008) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c12491/200812/603e2acac84f41f5891c22930ee4017d.shtml>.

47 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Meteorology Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查《中华人民共和国气象法》实施情况的报告) (2013) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c12491/201310/59942a2e800b4ef8b034c601602ce160.shtml>.

48 See ‘Report Letter from the General Office of the State Council on the National Development and Reform Commission’s Implementation of the NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Opinions and Suggestions on the Enforcement of Energy Efficiency Law’ (国务院办公厅转报发展改革委关于落实全国人大常委会执法检查组对节约能源法实施情况意见和建议报告的函) (2007) http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/xinwen/jdgz/bgjy/2007-04/26/content_364714.htm.

49 See Lin Yan, ‘The Status Quo of the Legislative Reservation Mechanism’ (法律保留制度的现状) (2009) 10 Constitutional Studies 614–625.

50 Zhang Cong, ‘For Local legislation, the Unification of the Legal System is the Bottom Line ---- Interview with Qiao Xiaoyang, Chairman of the NPC Law Committee’ (地方立法，法制统一是底线———专访全国人大法律委员会主任委员乔晓阳) Legal Daily (2015) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/xinwen/rdlt/fzjs/2015-09/18/content_1946827.htm>.

51 One study has found that the applicability of local laws and regulations in Shanghai to judicial practice is relatively limited. Specifically, the legal provisions of criminal liability are not directly applied in criminal cases; the legal provisions of civil liability are not applied frequently in civil cases; the legal provisions of administrative liability are more common in administrative cases. For details, see Wu Xielin, ‘The Empirical Study on the Application of Legal Responsibility Provisions’ (上海市地方性法规法律责任设定实证研究法律责任条款适用情况司法案例研究报告) in Xu Xianghua (eds), Designing Legal Responsibilities in the Drafting of Local Regulations (Law Press, 2007) 557–567.

52 See Lin Yan, ‘Law Enforcement Oversight: Institutional Approaches to Perfecting Laws Outside the Legislative Procedures’ (执法检查：立法程序外完善法律的制度途径) (2010) 11 Peking University Law Review 496–520.

53 For example, Chairman Zhang Dejiang pointed out in the instructions on the law enforcement inspection plan for the Administrative Reconsideration Law in 2013 that ‘the law enforcement inspection and the legal revision work should be organically combined to promote the improvement of the administrative reconsideration legal system’. See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Administrative Reconsideration Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查《中华人民共和国行政复议法》实施情况的报告) (2013) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/xinwen/2013-12/24/content_1819964.htm>.

54 According to the Legislation Law, local authorities, including local governments, do not have the right to propose a bill to the NPC and NPCSC. Therefore, submitting legislative proposals by the local government during law enforcement oversight represents an informal channel.

55 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Urban Residents’ Committee Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国城市居民委员会组织法>实施情况的报告) (2000) 6 NPCSC Gazette 693.

56 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Land Management Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国土地管理法>实施情况的报告) (2004) 5 NPCSC Gazette 391.

57 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of the Advancement of Science and Technology Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国科学技术进步法>实施情况的报告) (2004) 4 NPCSC Gazette 310.

58 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Clean Production Promotion Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国清洁生产促进法>实施情况的报告) (2010) 6 NPCSC Gazette 589.

59 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Cultural Relics Protection Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国文物保护法>实施情况的报告) (2012) 4 NPCSC Gazette 504.

60 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Food Safety Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查《中华人民共和国食品安全法》实施情况的报告) (2010) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/zfjc/spaqfzfjc/2010-05/10/content_1867144.htm>.

61 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Land Management Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国土地管理法>实施情况的报告) (2004) 5 NPCSC Gazette 384. See also ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国大气污染防治法>实施情况的报告) (2014) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2014-12/23/content_1892463.htm>.

62 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Urban Residents’ Committee Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国城市居民委员会组织法>实施情况的报告) (2000) 6 NPCSC Gazette 693. See also NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Regional National Autonomy Law (全国人会常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国民族区域自治法>实施情况的报告) (2015) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2016-02/26/content_1987063.htm>.

63 See for example, ‘State Council’s Notice on Breaking the Inter-regional Market Barriers, Further Invigorating the Circulation of Commodities’ (国务院关于打破地区间市场封锁 进一步搞活商品流通的通知) (1990) <http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2016-10/19/content_5121661.htm>. See also ‘State Council’s Provisions on Prohibiting Regional blockades in Market Economic Activities’ (国务院关于禁止在市场经济活动中实行地区封锁的规定) (2001) <http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2011/content_1860865.htm>.

64 See Chapter 5 of Antimonopoly Law [反垄断法] (promulgated by NPCSC, 30 August 2007, effective 1 August 2008, amended 2022). See also Article 15 of Administrative Licensing Law [行政许可法] (promulgated by NPCSC, 27 August 2003, effective 1 July 2004, amended 2019).

65 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Product Quality Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国产品质量法>实施情况的报告) (1999) 6 NPCSC Gazette 626.

66 Ibid.

67 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Mineral Resources Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国矿产资源法>实施情况的报告) (2002) 6 NPCSC Gazette 567.

68 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Administration of Tax Collection Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国税收征收管理法>实施情况的报告) (1998) 4 NPCSC Gazette 484. See also‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Forest Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国森林法>实施情况的报告) (1999) 5 NPCSC Gazette 489.

69 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on Product Quality Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国产品质量法>实施情况的报告) (1997) 5 NPCSC Gazette 4; See also ‘Report on the Law on Punishment of the Crime of Production and Sale of shoddy goods, etc.’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查‘三法一决定’执行情况的报告) (1994) 8 NPCSC Gazette 63.

70 Ibid.

71 See the ‘Inspection Report on the Decision on Punishment of the Crime of Production and Sale of Shoddy Goods’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查‘三法一决定’执行情况的报告) (1994) 8 NPCSC Gazette 63.

72 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Product Quality Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国产品质量法>实施情况的报告) (1999) 6 NPCSC Gazette 620.

73 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Patent Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国专利法>实施情况的报告) (2006) 6 NPCSC Gazette 504.

74 The interview was conducted by author on August 17, 2014, at the Party Official Training School of the Committee of Gansu Province.

75 ‘The Inspection Report on the Enforcement of the Law on the Protection of Disabled Persons’ (关于检查<中华人民共和国残疾人保障法>执行情况的报告) (1992) 6 NPCSC Gazette 156.

76 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Law on Minors’ Protection’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国未成年人保护法>实施情况的报告) (2008) 6 NPCSC Gazette 625.

77 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of NPCSC’s Decision on Maintaining Public Order’ (<关于加强社会治安综合治理的决定>报告) (1996) 9 NPCSC Gazette 212.

78 ‘The Inspection Report on the Enforcement of the Law on the Protection of Disabled Persons’ (关于检查<中华人民共和国残疾人保障法>执行情况的报告) (1992) 6 NPCSC Gazette 156.

79 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Urban Residents’ Committee Law’ (全国人大常委会关于<城市居民委员会组织法>执行情况的报告) (2000) 6 NPCSC Gazette 701.

80 See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Law on Minors’ Protection’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国未成年人保护法>实施情况的报告) (2008) 6 NPCSC Gazette 625. See also ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Education Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国教育法>实施情况的报告) (1996) 8 NPCSC Gazette 122.

81 For example, in 2000, the NPCSC noted that, after an introduction to different experiences in cities such as Shanghai and Nanjing, all reform attempts were permitted as long as it did not violate the Constitution and the basic principles of the law. See ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Urban Residents’ Committee Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国城市居民委员会组织法>实施情况的报告) (2000) 6 NPCSC Gazette 693.

82 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国大气污染防治法>实施情况的报告) (1999) 4 NPCSC Gazette 386.

83 See ‘State Council’s Report on the Progresses in Preventing and Controlling Air Pollution’ (国务院关于大气污染防治工作进展情况的报告) (2009) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c1482/200904/310e93d15a61459880ceb6c26d3cad75.shtml>.

84 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国水污染防治法>实施情况的报告) (2005) 5 NPCSC Gazette 430.

85 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Environmental Protection Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<环境保护法>实施情况的报告) (1996) 6 NPCSC Gazette 80.

86 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Compulsory Education Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国义务教育法>实施情况的报告) (2007) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/xinwen/jdgz/bgjy/2007-06/29/content_367978.htm>.

87 See NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国水污染防治法>实施情况的报告) (2005 <http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2005-07/29/content_5341681.htm>.

88 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of the Water Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国水法>实施情况的报告) (1997), 7 NPCSC Gazette 845.

89 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Environmental Impact Assessment Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国环境影响评价法>实施情况的报告) (2008) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/zfjc/hpjc/2008-10/27/content_1455671.htm>.

90 ‘NPCSC Law Enforcement Inspection Group’s Report on the Enforcement of Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law’ (全国人大常委会执法检查组关于检查<中华人民共和国大气污染防治法>实施情况的报告) (2014) <http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c12491/201410/309fa4cb49b14a15a658219e18660523.shtml>.

91 Ibid.

92 See Chapter 5 ‘Joint Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in Key Areas’ of Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law [大气污染防治法] (promulgated at 5 September 1987, effective at 1 June 1988, amended 2018).