Ethnocentrism of Victimhood: Tracing the Discourses of Khmer Ethnicity in Precolonial and Colonial Cambodia

ABSTRACT

This article demonstrates that precolonial Khmer ethnicity played an essential role in the Cambodian court’s relations with those of Siam and Vietnam in the mid-19^th century because Cambodia’s ruling elite and religious leaders often adopted ethnic politics in relation to the Khmer to resist threats that the neighbouring courts imposed on them. Developed as ‘ethnocentrism of victimhood’, which integrates real or imagined depictions of external influence with anxieties about the extinction of an ethnic community, this primordial ethnic conception was transformed under French rule and became crucial in the rise of nationalism during the early 20^th century. The colonial encounter superimposed on the precolonial conception of ethnic identity by inserting the notion of racial superiority into it, thus worsening Khmer–Vietnamese relations. Newly emerged components such as national borders and history, along with socio-political factors, were crucial in restructuring ethnicity under colonial conditions. The notion of being a victim of someone else’s abuses had a long-term impact on forming and stimulating ethnic antagonism among ethnic Khmers. This analysis thus reveals the role played by primordialism and constructivism in reformulating modern ethnicity and nationality, and why ethnic antagonism toward the Vietnamese emerged among the Khmer.

Khmer Abstract

ជាតិសាសន៍ដែលងាយរងគ្រោះ៖ តាមដានការវិវត្តផ្នត់គំនិតទាក់ទងនឹងជនជាតិខ្មែរមុន និងក្នុងសម័យអាណានិគម

អត្ថបទនេះអះអាងថា ផ្នត់គំនិតទាក់ទងនឹងជនជាតិខ្មែរ នៅពាក់កណ្តាលសតវត្សទី១៩ មានតួនាទីយ៉ាងសំខាន់នៅក្នុងទំនាក់ទំនងរវាងព្រះរាជវាំងខ្មែរ និងព្រះរាជវាំងរបស់វៀតណាម និងសៀម។ ក្នុងអំឡុងពេលនោះ មន្ត្រី និងអ្នកដឹកនាំព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនាខ្មែរ តែងតែយកនយោបាយជាតិសាសន៍ទាក់ទងនឹងជនជាតិខ្មែរ ដើម្បីប្រឆាំងនឹងការគាបសង្កត់ពីអំណាចនៃអាណាចក្រជិតខាងទាំងពីរនេះ។ សកម្មភាពនេះនាំអោយលេចឡើងនូវការយល់ឃើញរួមមួយដែលបង្ហាញថាជនជាតិខ្លួនជា ”ជាតិសាសន៍ដែលងាយរងគ្រោះ”។ គំនិតនេះកកើតតាមរយៈការបញ្ចូលគ្នារវាងក្តីបារម្ភពីឥទ្ធិពលនយោបាយពីខាងក្រៅ ពិតផង និងស្រមើស្រមៃផង ទៅលទ្ធភាពនៃការរលាយបាត់ទាំងស្រុងនៃជាតិសាសន៍មួយ។ ផ្នត់គំនិតជាតិសាសន៍បែបប្រពៃណីនេះមានការប្រែប្រួលយ៉ាងខ្លាំងនៅក្រោយការគ្រប់គ្រងរបស់អាណានិគមបារាំង ដោយវាបានក្លាយជាចលករដ៏សំខាន់មួយនៃការលេចឡើងនូវចលនាជាតិនិយមនៅដើមសតវត្សទី២០។ ការចូលមកដល់របស់អាណានិគមបានពង្រីកបន្ថែមលើផ្នត់គំនិតជាតិសាសន៍បែបប្រពៃណីនេះ តាមរយៈការច្របាច់បញ្ចូលនូវគំនិតទាក់ទងនឹងជាតិសាសន៍ខ្ពង់ខ្ពស់ ដែលនាំឲ្យមានទំនាក់ទំនងល្អក់កកររវាងជាតិសាសន៍ខ្មែរ និងជាតិសាសន៍វៀតណាម។ ធាតុថ្មីៗដែលទើបនឹងលេចរូបរាងឡើង ដូចជាបន្ទាត់ព្រំដែនបែងចែកប្រទេស ការយល់ដឹងពីប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រ និងកត្តាសង្គមនយោបាយ ដើរតួនាទីយ៉ាងសំខាន់ក្នុងការ កំណត់គំនិតទាក់ទងនឹងជាតិសាសន៍ក្នុងសម័យអាណានិគម។ ការគិតថា ខ្លួនគឺជាជនរងគ្រោះនៃការគាបសង្កត់ពីសំណាក់អ្នកដទៃ បានជះឥទ្ធិពលយូរអង្វែងទៅលើការកកើត និងការមិនចុះសម្រុងគ្នារវាងជាតិសាសន៍ដទៃ និងជាតិសាសន៍ខ្មែរ។ ការសិក្សាលើការវិវត្តនេះ អាចធ្វើឲ្យយើងយល់ដឹងស៊ីជម្រៅនូវទំនាក់ទំនងរវាងគំនិតបែបប្រពៃណី និងគំនិតដែលទើបកើតឡើងថ្មីៗ ក្នុងការលេចជារូបរាងឡើងនូវគំនិតជនជាតិ និងជាតិបែបទំនើប។ ជាមួយគ្នានេះដែរ វាក៏បានបើកកកាយនូវកក្តាមួយចំនួនដែលនាំឲ្យមានជម្លោះជាតិសាសន៍ ក្នុងចំណោមជនជាតិខ្មែរទៅលើជនជាតិវៀតណាម។

KEYWORDS:

• Ethnocentrism
• victimhood
• colonialism
• ethno-nationalism
• Khmer ethnicity
• Khmer–Vietnamese relations
• precolonial and colonial Cambodia

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Patrick Jory, Michael Barr, the editorial team of Asian Studies Review, and the four anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments. We also wish to thank Christoph Sperfeldt, Sally Low, Henri Locard, and Bruce Lockhart for their constructive feedback on earlier drafts of this article.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

^1. Only the 1855 and 1876 editions remain (see Khin, 2002). Chandler (1996, 61–99) examines these poetic texts in his study of an anti-Vietnamese rebellion and the perceptions of order in precolonial Cambodia during the early 19^th century.

^2. For example, regarding the Vĩnh Tê Canal incident, which involved some 5,000 Khmer labourers, a visiting English diplomat reported in 1822 that working conditions were harsh and had caused 10,000 deaths among the labourers (Chandler, 1975, 18).

^3. We thank one of the reviewers for making this important observation.

^4. For a discussion of Minh Mang’s policy toward the Khmer court, including the motivation behind its requirements of Khmer officials to wear Vietnamese-style robes and perform Vietnamese rituals, see McHale (2013).

^5. The manuscript is preserved at the École française d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in Paris under catalogue number P.Camb.88. Several other 19^th-century chronicles, such as a palace text composed in 1878, and another written in 1883, largely incorporated information from P.Camb.88. For more on 19^th- and 20^th-century Khmer chronicles, see Thun (2021).

^6. Sisowath’s 1906 letter of protest was used by the Sihanouk regime (1955–1970) as supporting evidence in Cambodia’s dispute with Thailand over ownership of the Preah Vihear temple at the International Court of Justice in 1962 (see Touch, 2009). The original letter in French can be seen at https://www.sophanseng.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/King-Sisowat-letter-of-1907.pdf.

^7. This Sisowath court chronicle was reproduced by the palace in 1929 and again in 1934, with the intent to publish the chronicle in print and distribute it to the Cambodian public. This intention was not successful (Thun, 2017, 55–85; Thun, 2024, 52–61).

^8. This observation is based on our reading of Khmer chronicles written between the 1860s and the 1930s, which include P.Camb.88 and P.Camb.63 manuscripts (EFEO, 1869; 1904).

^9. Based on Khing Hoc Dy’s observation, the text was sponsored by a French colonial official and scholar named Adhémar Leclére, who left a note on Ta Meas’s text instructing him to make 10,000 copies of the text to distribute around the country. We are particularly thankful to Khing for collecting the original edition of Ta Meas’s account from a library in France and making it available to the public (Khing, 2007, 7–8).

^10. Ind’s (1934) poetic text was later published in the state-sponsored Kampuchèa Sauriya magazine. For more on the Franco–Siamese treaty and the return of Battambang and Siam in 1907, see Briggs (1946).

^11. Pich’s two 19^th-century poetic texts also remained popular throughout the 20^th century. Their editions had been reproduced as the ‘Rīoeṅ Kaṃbup Tae Uṅ’ (‘Story of the Spilling Master’s Tea’), which became a popular account of modern Cambodia’s hostility and antagonism toward Vietnam (Eng, 1969, 1215–1216).

Additional information

Funding

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) of Germany and Kyoto University’s CSEAS Next Generation Academic Subsidy Program.