Nutritional profiling and sensory attributes of sesame seed-enriched bars

ABSTRACT

Sesame belongs to the family Pedaliaceae and scientifically named as Sesamum indicum L. It has been considered as one of the most ancient oil crop. To explore the nutraceutical and therapeutic potential of sesame seeds, the present study was planned to develop protein-enriched sesame bars with the addition of barley flour at the rate of 10%, 20%, and 30% among treatments T1, T2, and T3, respectively. Sesame barley-supplemental protein (SBSP) bars were analyzed for compositional, phytochemical, and sensory attributes including color, texture, taste, holding ability, and overall acceptability. The proximate analysis of all treatments showed varied range of results moisture (4.68  ±  0.45%), ash (3.66  ±  0.09%), crude fat (11.48  ±  0.12%), crude protein (42.37  ±  0.66), crude fiber (4.63  ±  0.23%), and nitrogen-free extract (26.29  ±  0.26%), respectively. Results of mineral analysis of all treatments were recorded as calcium (51.88–86.92 mg), iron (3.48–8.48 mg), potassium (359.35–639.20 mg), magnesium (28.23–47.54 mg), and phosphorus (151.03–378.81 mg). The results of total phenolic content ranged from 37.58 to 99.43 mg GAE/100 g, while the results for the total flavonoid content fall in range from 110.85 to 196.50 mg CE/100 g. The DPPH results illustrated that the highest content of DPPH was present in T₂ (8.81  ±  0.13), while the lowest DPPH value was noticed in T₀ (5.62  ±  0.08). On the basis of sensory evaluation, the T₃ SBSP bar was preferred containing 25% barley flour and 75% sesame flour for its attractive color, texture, and overall acceptability.

KEYWORDS:

• Sesame
• barley
• protein bars
• nutrition
• sensory

Introduction

As the word “malnutrition” simply means “poor nutrition,” it can refer to either excessive or insufficient intake of food. Even though overnutrition has become more common due to industrialization and shifting eating habits, undernutrition remains the primary worry in the context of developing countries^[1]. There has been an increase in research on functional foods in the last decade, but few of these studies have focused on the bioavailability of bioactive compounds for clinical efficacy. Functional food consumption is recommended as a policy to lower the prevalence of health issues and malnutrition. This shortcoming might be filled by the enrichment and fortification of bioactive ingredients in functional foods, as the consumption of such fortified products (cakes, bread, bars, and biscuits) has been widely used.^[2]

Food fortification is now considered to be one of the main interests of nutritionists in order to satisfy the growing demand for nutritional awareness among consumers. The customer target is approaching healthy food options with massive benefits to enhance body functions and to reduce the risk of the disease.^[3] Food supplements are a variety of ingredients that are eaten in addition to the main course. They are important for nutrition and health due to their functional ingredients, such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals. Coriander leaves, mint leaves, curry leaves, green chilies, bengal gram, tomatoes, black gram, sesame seeds, and flax seeds are rich sources of bioactive compounds, which contribute significantly to their roles as antioxidants, antibacterials, antifungals, anti-inflammatories, anti-allergens, antidiabetics, and anticancer agents in natural foods. Understanding the therapeutic advantages of food additives can motivate businesspeople to position their products with their functional advantages on the world market.^[4]

However, the development of nutritional products via functional foods is a significant endeavor with the potential to positively impact public health, disease prevention, and overall well-being. However, it is crucial to ensure that these products are based on sound scientific evidence and properly regulated to deliver the promised health benefits safely and effectively. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the fortification of specific foods for development of new products has led to increased nutritional contents, especially in terms of protein. For instance, the incorporation of virgin coconut oil into cake formulations has resulted in a noteworthy boost in protein content and has also improved consumer acceptance.^[5] Likewise, coconut milk has been shown to enhance the nutritional composition of rice and corn extrudates.^[6]

Barley is a nutritious cereal grain that has been used for thousands of years as a food and for medicinal purposes. It is effective in controlling blood sugar levels, as barley is a low glycemic index food.^[7] It can be beneficial to reduce the risk of heart disease, and the soluble fiber in barley can help lower cholesterol levels, reduce blood pressure, and improve heart health. Also the high fiber content in barley can help improve the feeling of fullness and reduce calorie intake, which may aid in weight loss. Barley also contains antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds that may further reduce the risk of heart disease. Barley contains prebiotic fibers that can help feed the beneficial bacteria in the gut, leading to improved gut health and overall immune function. Moreover, barley is a good source of several vitamins and minerals, including vitamin B6, niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, iron, magnesium, and phosphorus.^[8]

Sesame seeds are an excellent source of nutrients and are commonly used in the fortification to add nutritional value to various food products. Sesame seeds are a rich source of essential minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc. Fortification of sesame seeds in functional foods can help address deficiencies in these minerals, particularly in populations that have limited access to nutrient-dense foods. Sesame seeds are also a good source of dietary fiber, which helps to maintain digestive health and prevent chronic diseases such as heart disease and diabetes. Incorporating sesame seeds into fortified foods can help increase the fiber content and promote overall health. Sesame seeds are high in antioxidants such as sesamol, sesamin, and sesamolin, which can help protect against oxidative stress and prevent chronic diseases.^[9,10] Fortification of sesame seeds to functional foods can help increase the antioxidant potential of food products and provide additional health benefits. Sesame seeds are easy to incorporate into a wide range of food products, including bread, bars, cookies, pasta, cereals, and snacks. They can be utilized to enhance the nutritional efficiency and antioxidant potential of any functional food, including whole seeds, flour, and oil, making them a versatile and convenient option for fortification to eradicate malnutrition.^[11–14]

Therefore, in the current study, the focus of research was to fortify barley flour that has been widely used as a functional food with sesame seed flour/powder in different concentrations. The present study was conducted to develop protein- and energy-enriched nutrient-dense sesame bars. For this purpose, sesame flour was analyzed for the proximate, selected minerals, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and DPPH content. Afterward, bar samples were analyzed for compositional (proximate, minerals, TPC, and TFC), color, texture, and sensory evaluation.

Materials and methods

Procurement of material and treatments

The current research was conducted at the National Institute of Food Science and Technology (NIFSAT), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. White sesame seeds in raw form were purchased from Ayub Agriculture Research Institute (AARI), Faisalabad. Barley flour, jaggery, and other materials for the development of protein bars were purchased from a local market of Faisalabad. Sesame seeds were manually cleaned to remove damaged seeds, dirt particles, and other contaminants; seeds were washed and sun dried. Then sesame seeds and barley flour were weighed as in the treatment plan (Table 1) and transferred into polyethylene pouches for product development and further analysis. T₀ was considered as a control group with 0% sesame seeds, whereas T₁, T₂, T₃, and T₄ were fortified with sesame seeds as 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%, respectively. The peparation of sesame seed bars is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The flow chart for the production of bars.

Table 1. Treatment plan for the development of sesame protein bars.

Treatment	T0	T1	T2	T3	T4
Barley %	100	75	50	25	0
Sesame seed %	0	25	50	75	100

Proximate analysis performed of sesame seed flour

Moisture content, ash, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extract (NFE) of raw materials were analyzed by following American Association of Cereal Chemist-approved methods.^[15,16] All these analyses were performed thrice for accurate results. Sesame seeds flour was analyzed for crude protein (AACC Method no. 46–10), crude fat (AACC Method no. 30–25), crude fiber (AACC Method no. 32–10), moisture content (AACC Method no. 44-15A), total ash (AACC Method no. 08–01), and above all NFEs by utilizing methods as described by the AACC.^[15]

Proximate analysis performed of sesame seed bars

Moisture content

To determine the moisture content of sesame seed bars, 5 g product samples were obtained in pre-weighted crucibles. The sample was placed in a hot air oven at 106  ±  6°C for 24 h and then removed and placed in a desiccator to cool down after being placed in a thermostatically controlled hot air oven at 106  ±  6°C. The sample was re-weighted until the constant weight was achieved, and moisture content was determined. At last, the cooled sample was weighted thrice and recorded.

Crude fat

Crude fat was determined by the approved method of the AACC^[15] with the help of the Soxhlet apparatus. 5 g moisture-free sample was added to the extraction chamber of the Soxhlet apparatus and capped with a cotton plug in the thimble. The sample was treated for the process of crude fat determination with n-hexane for 2–3 h at a rate of three to four droplets per second. After completing six to seven siphons, the thimble was removed and dried in a hot air oven at 105  ±  5°C for 1 h, and solvent residues were removed. After cooling in a desiccator, the petri dish was weighed until it reached a steady weight, and fat was determined.

Crude protein

The crude protein of sesame seed bars was determined through the prescribed method of Kieldahl as defined in AOAC.^[17] The protein determination procedure consists of digestion, distillation, and titration. K₂SO₄, CuSO₄, and FeSO₄ were re-mixed in a 90:9:1 ratio to form a digesting mixture. All the chemicals were mixed, and protein digestion was done by using 5 g of sample in a 250 mL flask of Kjeldahl apparatus. The digestion flask containing 5 g digestion mixture received 20–25 mL of 98% concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). Heating was done until transparency in the material was obtained. Afterward, the addition of 10 g of digestion mixture 5 mL of sodium hydroxide solution and 10 g boric acid solution turn mixture into dark pink color. Lastly, the contents were placed in a Markham flask and heated in distillation apparatus until the solution became yellow or colorless. Crude protein determination was done by titration in which the prepared 0.1N H₂SO₄ was added in titration solution until it turned out to be pink or purple. The values were noted, and the percentage of protein was determined.

Crude fiber

The fiber content was determined using the AACC^[15] recommended method. 5 g of fat-free sample and 200 mL of 1.25% H₂SO₄ in a beaker was placed on a hot plate for 30–40 min. After that, the sample was rinsed with distilled water from three to four times. The sample was then reconstituted in a beaker with 200 mL of 1.25% NaOH solution and placed on a hot plate for another 30–40 min. The leftovers were then rinsed with distilled water before being placed in the crucible. For another 30 min, the crucible was placed directly in the muffle furnace at 550°C. After cooling, the crucible was weighed, and the percentage was estimated using an equation.

$\begin{array}{rl}& \mathrm{C}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\hspace{0.17em}\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)\hspace{0.17em}=\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{D}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{w}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\hspace{0.17em}-\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{W}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{h}\hspace{0.17em}\left(\mathrm{g}\right)\times \hspace{0.17em}100\\ & \mathrm{W}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{e}\hspace{0.17em}\left(\mathrm{g}\right)\end{array}$

Total ash content

Ash content of sesame seed bars was determined by following the protocols mentioned in AACC,^[15] in a pre-weighted crucible, and 3 g of oven-dried sample was put on a direct flame. The sample was burned until the smoke was gone. The sample was then placed in a muffle furnace, and sample was kept at 550°C. The sample was burned until it turned white or gray. The crucible was then taken out of the furnace and placed in a desiccator to cool before being weighted for the final reading.

Nitrogen-free extract

NFE was calculated by subtracting the moisture, crude protein, ash, crude fat, and crude fiber percentages from 100 using the formula:

$\mathrm{N}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{E}\hspace{0.17em}\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)\hspace{0.17em}=\hspace{0.17em}100\hspace{0.17em}-\hspace{0.17em}\left(\mathrm{\%}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{e}\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}\hspace{0.17em}-\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{\%}\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\hspace{0.17em}-\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{\%}\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\hspace{0.17em}-\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{\%}\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{h}\hspace{0.17em}-\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{\%}\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{e}\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\right)$

Mineral analysis of sesame seed bars

The method described by AOAC^[17] was used to determine the mineral content including calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron in the sample by using atomic absorption spectrophotometer and flame photometer. The 0.5 g dried sample was first digested at the low temperature (60–70°C) in a 100 mL conical flask with 10 mL HNO₃ for 20 minon a hot plate and then at the high temperature (190°C) with 5 mL HCIO₄ until the contents of the flask became clear. The sample was transferred to a 100 mL volumetric flask, and the volume was made up to the mark with double distilled and de-ionized water. The atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used for iron content, and the flame photometer was utilized for the calcium content. The solution was filtered and stored in a bottle using filter paper. Standard curves for each mineral were created by analyzing samples of known intensity. The mineral contents of the samples were analyzed by using the respective standard curves prepared for each mineral.

Phytochemical analysis of sesame seed bars

Total phenolic content

The TPC of the samples was measured by Folin–Ciocalteau method as followed by Lin et al..^[18] Folin–Ciocalteau reagent was combined in a flask along with 0.75 mL saturated sodium carbonate solution and 0.95 mL distilled water. The mixture was then incubated at 37°C for 30 min, and the absorbance was measured at 765 nm with a UV–V spectrophotometer (Unicam Heλio α Cambridge, UK). The results were compared to a gallic acid solution-based standard curve (Sigma Chemical). Milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of fresh weight were used to calculate the TPC (mg GAE g-1 FW). Total phenolic compounds of each extract in gallic acid equivalents were calculated by using the different formulas:

$\begin{array}{rl}& \mathrm{C}=\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{c}\hspace{0.17em}\times \hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{V}/\mathrm{m}\\ & \mathrm{W}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e},\hspace{0.17em}\left(\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{C}\hspace{0.17em}=\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{s},\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{c}\hspace{0.17em}=\hspace{0.17em}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{f}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{d},\hspace{0.17em}\\ V\hspace{0.17em}=\hspace{0.17em}volumeofextract,andm\hspace{0.17em}=\hspace{0.17em}weightofsample\end{array}\right)\end{array}$

Total flavonoid content

The TFC was determined using the AlCl₃ colorimetric technique as followed by Khan et al.^[19] to assess the flavonoid content, and the quercetin reagent was employed as a standard. The stock quercetin solution was made by dissolving 5 mg of quercetin in 1 mL of methanol. Several dilutions in the range of 5–200 µg/mL were also made. After that, 6 mL of sample or standard solution was combined with 6 mL 2% solution of AlCl₃. The solution was correctly mixed and incubated for roughly an hour at room temperature. The absorbance of the sample and standard was then measured using a spectrophotometer at 420 nm. The TFC was calculated using the following formula:

$Y=0.0162x+0.0044\text{ TFC}\text{was}\text{expressed}\text{as}\text{quercetin}\text{equivalent}\text{mg/g }$

DPPH radical scavenging activity

The ability of the extract to react with the DPPH free radical was tested to determine its antioxidant capability. The sample was dissolved in 5 mL of 80% methanol and agitated for 2 hin a shaker. After this, 2 mg DPPH was dissolved in 50 mL methanol to make the DPPH solution. Then 25 µL of methanol extract was added to 2 mL of this solution. To complete the reaction, the mixture was agitated and placed in a dark place. The absorbance value was found to be 515 nm. The DPPH radical scavenging% was calculated with the formula below:

$\begin{array}{rl}& \mathrm{R}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{v}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{v}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{y}\hspace{0.17em}\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)\hspace{0.17em}=1-{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{f}\hspace{0.17em}/}{\mathrm{A}}_0\times \hspace{0.17em}100\\ & \mathrm{W}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e},\hspace{0.17em}{\mathrm{A}}_0\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{d}{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{f}}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{k}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{v}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}.\end{array}$

Physiochemical analysis of sesame seed bars

Texture analysis

The hardness of sesame seeds bars was assessed by the method followed by Jiang et al.^[20] using a texture analyzer (TA-XT Plus, Stable Microsystem, UK) that was run with the Texture software export program. A single compression test was done with a flat-ended cylindrical probe with a diameter of 75 nm (P/75). The compression plate continued to travel down onto the spread after achieving a 1,000 g trigger force. Under the applied stress, the sample deformed, but there was no product breakage. When the compression distance was increased, little peaks appeared on the graph profile, indicating that the sample had compressed. This stage terminated quickly when the test was done, and it was indicated by a significant drop in force. As the distance between two points increases, the ability of sample to endure compression increases. Hardness was one of the criteria determined by the curves. An average of at least three replicates was used for each formulation.

Color analysis

The color analysis of bars was assessed according to method by using the CIE-lab SPACE technique (Color Tec-PCM, NY, USA). In triplicates, the L* value (positive values indicates lightness, while negative value indicates darkness), a* value (indicates red and green color difference), and b* value (indicates yellow and blue color) were found at various locations inside the sample. The following calculation was used to compute the color change and witness index (WI) using these parameters.

$\mathrm{\Delta }E=\sqrt[\hspace{0.17em}]{{\left(L^{\ast }-L_{Std}^{\ast }\right)}^2+{\left(a^{\ast }-a_{Std}^{\ast }\right)}^2+{\left(b^{\ast }-b_{Std}^{\ast }\right)}^2}$

$C^{\ast }=\sqrt[\hspace{0.17em}]{{\left(a^{\ast }\right)}^2+{\left(b^{\ast }\right)}^2}$

$WI=\sqrt[\hspace{0.17em}]{100-{\left(100-L_{\hspace{0.17em}}^{\ast }\right)}^2+{\left(a^{\ast }\right)}^2+{\left(b^{\ast }\right)}^2}$

Calorific value

The energy (calorific value) was determined by following the method by Abbas et al.^[21] with the help of oxygen bomb calorimeter. In a metallic decomposition vial, a 0.5 g sample of bar was placed. Following that, a cotton thread was used to attach the vial to the center of the ignition wire using a loop. The screw cap is then tightened. To open the measurement cell lid, the decomposition vial was guided into the filling head until it was secure. The measuring cell cover was closed after pressing the start button. By using an electric spark, the sample within the vial was burned. The heat created was recorded by computer software and dispensed in the form of a temperature vs. time graph. The number of calories per gram of sample was shown.

Sensory evaluation

A panel of judges evaluated sesame seed bar samples for sensory features using a 9-point Hedonic score system based on color, crispiness, flavor, texture, appearance, and overall acceptability as prescribed by Soltani et al.^[22] The organoleptic features of bars were analyzed by 20 students aged 20–30 years from the University of Agriculture Faisalabad. The sesame seed bars were offered to panelists at room temperature, and before each evaluation, the panelists were given water to rinse their mouths and neutralize their taste buds. The ratings were done on point hedonic score system, and the scores were given by the judges for each parameter, and an average of the scores was taken.

Statistical analysis

The acquired data were subjected to variance analysis under complete randomized design and factorial design for the evaluation of means square and mean analytical values using the Montgomery method.

Results and discussions

Proximate composition of sesame seed flour

Table 2 shows the proximate analysis of sesame seed flour. The current study had revealed that chemical composition of sesame flour contains moisture (4.15%), crude protein (20.61%), crude fat (40%), ash (3.89%), crude fiber (3.76%), and NFE (22.97%). Thus, the results have revealed that sesame seed flour contains high levels of protein and fat content. The results were in accordance with another study that had shown that the proximate composition of sesame seeds contained high levels of fat (52.9%) and protein (23.5%).^[23] The results of the current study were also aligned with those reported by Abbas et al.^[9]; while evaluating the proximate analysis of sesame seeds, research found that sesame flour contained moisture, fat, protein, ash, fiber and NFE as 4.50%, 40.21%, 22.13%, 4.20%, 3.46%, and 24.56%, respectively. Another study revealed the results of proximate analysis of sesame flour, which showed that sesame flour chemical composition consists of crude protein (16.97%), crude fiber (4.46%), moisture (6.13%), crude fat (43.32%), ash (6.15%), and NFE (20.56%).^[24] Tenyang et al.^[25] has also reported high contents of protein, ash, and carbohydrates according to the reported results sesame flour contains protein 21.01%, ash 3.89%, moisture 4.83%, fat 42.94%, and carbohydrate 16.75%, and thus, the results were in accordance with the current study.

Table 2. Proximate composition of sesame seed flour.

Proximate content	Moisture	Ash	Crude fat	Crude protein	Crude fiber	NFE
Concentration (%)	4.15 ± 0.14	3.89 ± 0.11	40.82 ± 0.49	2.81 ± 0.19	3.76 ± 0.46	22.97 ± 0.10

Proximate composition of sesame seed bars

Moisture content

Moisture content in foods is an important factor that determine the physical characteristics and shelf life of food. In addition to these factors, it had a great impact on quality, freshness, and microbial resistance of food.^[26] The presence of moisture in any food product plays an important role in physical, chemical, and textural characteristics of the product. It is the measure of shelf life of food products, and the variation in the moisture had a great impact on the shelf life of products.^[27] Table 3 indicates the results for the moisture content of sesame seed bars with barley flour. Results of the study revealed that by increasing the concentration of sesame seeds in barley flour, the moisture content decreases that indicates toward the increased shelf life of the product. Results of the current study have shown a significant difference in all the treatments and control sample of bars, as the moisture content reduced from 4.68% (T₀) to 3.41% (T₄). The highest value of moisture was observed in T₀, whereas the lowest moisture content was observed in T₄ with 100% of sesame seeds. The results of the current study were partially aligned with the results of Rajagukguk et al.^[28] who reported the moisture content of sesame seed oil as 4.90%. As the moisture content in sesame bars was gradually decreased in the current study due to the addition of sesame seeds, these results were contradictory with those of Abbas et al.^[29] who reported that the addition of sesame flour in different concentrations in bars decreased the moisture ranged from 5.52% to 3.41%. In another study, the addition of sesame flour in bread added in different concentrations decrease the moisture level from 7.40% to 4.89%.^[30]

Table 3. Proximate composition of sesame seed bars.

Treatments	Moisture	Fat	Protein	Fiber	Ash	NFE
T0	4.68 ± 0.45^a	4.25 ± 0.10^d	36.04 ± 0.80d	2.27 ± 0.57^c	2.14 ± 0.22^c	25.59 ± 0.30^b
T1	4.57 ± 0.39^ab	8.52 ± 0.39^c	37.31 ± 0.39cd	3.13 ± 0.40^bc	2.47 ± 0.38^c	26.46 ± 0.49^ab
T2	4.35 ± 0.04^ab	9.45 ± 0.45^b	37.84 ± 0.38c	3.80 ± 0.15^ab	2.60 ± 0.14^bc	27.27 ± 0.18^a
T3	3.90 ± 0.02^bc	10.15 ± 0.14^b	39.53 ± 0.44b	4.55 ± 0.29^a	3.15 ± 0.07^ab	26.85 ± 0.50^a
T4	3.41 ± 0.07^c	11.48 ± 0.12^b	42.37 ± 0.66a	4.63 ± 0.23^a	3.66 ± 0.09^a	26.29 ± 0.26^ab

Crude fat

The crude fat content has been listed in Table 3 of barley flour bars supplemented with different treatments of sesame seeds. Results of the study revealed that the fat content increased significantly with the increase in sesame seed concentration (p < .05). In the current study, results have shown the lowest content of the fat in T0 (4.25%), whereas the highest content of fat was observed in T4 (11.48%). The results of the current study were aligning with the results of Oluwamukomi^[31] who observed the higher fat content with the increase in sesame seed flour in gari, and the results reveal the increased difference of 0.33% to 7.01% in control and 10% sesame flour fortified gari, respectively. However, it has been observed that with the increase in sesame seed flour in millet biscuits, the fat content increases dramatically with high ratios of sesame seed.^[32] However, the fat content ranges supported by the study conducted by Iombor et al.^[30] were in accordance with the findings of current study who observed that the crude fat content of the bread samples ranged from 14.09% to 5.27%.

Crude protein

Sesame flour is a good source of protein, which increase the protein value of food products. Results have been listed in Table 3 regarding the protein content of barley flour bars supplemented with sesame seed. The results revealed the significant difference between different treatments and control sample of bars. It has been observed that protein content increases significantly (p < .05) throughout the treatments. The lowest ratio was observed in T₀ as 36.04%, whereas the highest content was observed in T₄ as 42.37%. The protein content ranges supported by studies conducted by Abbas et al.^[29] in which the protein level of bars were increased from 32.58% to 37.20%. In another study, the protein levels of biscuits were also increased by using sesame flour from 19.78% to 30.20%.^[32] The results of the current study were in accordance with the findings by Kimani et al.^[33] who observed the increasing protein content in rice cookies with the increase in sesame powder. Results of the current study were aligning with the results by Oluwamukomi.^[31] who observed the higher protein content with the increase in sesame seed flour in gari, and the results reveal the increased difference of 1.90–18.20% in control and 10% sesame flour fortified gari, respectively.

Crude fiber

Results for crude fiber of barley flour bars supplemented with different concentrations of sesame seed flour have been listed in Table 3. Results of the current study revealed that there was a significant (p < .05) increase in crude fiber content with the increase in sesame seeds in the treatments. The highly significant relationship of different treatments used for the preparation of bars supplemented with sesame seeds. The lowest value was observed in T₀ as 2.27%, whereas the highest value was observed in T₄ as 4.63%. Results of the current study were partially in accordance with the findings by Annoh et al.^[34] who observed the increased fiber content as 7.67% when wheat rock cake was fortified with sesame powder. Howver, the food products fortified with seeds such as sesame seed have been engraved great importance as the fiber content increases with the fortification of sesame seeds in bakery and cereal products.^[35] Results of the current study were also in accordance with the findings by El-Enzi et al.^[36] who fortified wheat flour with sesame seed flour and observed increased value of crude fiber content at different concentrations such as, 20%, 30%, and 40% for biscuits.

Ash content

The ash content in food product is an inorganic material and is an important quality attribute in food and also show the presence of minerals in food product.^[37] The results for the ash content of barley flour bars fortified with sesame seed flour have been listed in Table 3, which indicate that with the increased concentration of sesame seed flour in bars the ash content also increases. Results have shown significantly (p < .05) increased values, the lowest value for ash content was observed in T₀ (2.14%) and the highest value was observed in T₄ (3.66%). The results of the current study were aligning with the results by Annoh et al.^[34] who observed the increase in ash content of wheat rock cake fortified with different concentrations of sesame seed flour although heist ash content was observed with 25% sesame seed flour. Results of the current study were also in accordance with the findings by Animashaun et al.^[38] who reported the highest ash content in pasta achieved with 50% of sesame seed flour concentration increased from 1.29% to 1.98%. In the current study, the ash content in sesame bars gradually increased as the level of sesame seeds increased, and the results were in line with Abbas et al.,^[29] which indicate that the ash content increased from 2.47% to 3.67% as the concentration of sesame increased in bars. Another study has been observed that the addition of sesame flour in wheat biscuits increases the ash value from 2.29% to 3.01%.^[39]

Nitrogen-free extract

The difference in sesame bars moisture, ash, protein, fat, fiber, and NFE observed due to different concentrations of sesame seeds along with the different processing conditions. Table 3 indicates the NFE content of barley flour bars supplemented with sesame seeds. The results of the current study revealed the slightly significant difference among all treatments used for the preparation of bars supplemented with sesame seeds. The lowest content was observed in T₀ as 25.59%, whereas T₄ showed the highest NFE as 26.29%.

Mineral analysis

Means for mineral analysis of sesame flour have been described in Table 4. The mineral analysis of sesame flour showed that 100 g of sesame seeds contained iron (9.92 mg), calcium (1142.81 mg), potassium (594.72 mg), magnesium (381.50 mg), and phosphorous (575.40 mg/100 g). Calcium is an essential component for bones and teeth, required for proper nerve functioning, contraction and relaxation of muscles, and health of immune system.^[40] Magnesium is essential for normal growth, sexual maturation, healthy immune system, and wound healing. Magnesium is required for protein synthesis, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. It is also present in bones, whereas potassium is essential for nerve transmission, fluid and electrolyte balance, nerve transition, heart function, and muscle contraction. Iron is used for energy metabolism and hemoglobin formation.^[41] In the current study, a significant increase has been observed among different treatments. The lowest calcium content has been observed as 51.88% in T₀, whereas T₄ had shown the highest value for calcium content as 86.92% in sesame fortified barley bars. Inorganic substances that are required in minute quantity for the proper functioning of the body and are mostly supplied by a variety of foods in the diet are called minerals. They help the body to grow, develop, and stay healthy.^[42] A significant increase has also been observed in the current study among iron (Fe), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) as the lowest content was observed among T₀ as 3.48% (Fe), 151.03% (P), 28.23% (P), and 359.35% (K), whereas the highest content was observed among T₄ as 8.48% (Fe), 325.66% (P), 47.55% (Mg), and 639.21% (K). These results are somehow similar and somehow contradictory by the findings by Oduma et al.^[42] who prepared butter by partial replacement of peanut seed paste with sesame seed paste and found that the 100% replacement of peanut paste with sesame seed paste increased the levels of magnesium (196.74–285.12 mg/100 g), iron (2.97–6.25 mg/100 g), and calcium (59.43–67.80 mg/100 g), while potassium (527.46–305.09 mg/100 g) and sodium (430.18–201.06 mg/100 g) decreased in paste.

Table 4. Mineral analysis performed of sesame seed bars.

Treatments	Calcium	Iron	Phosphorus	Magnesium	Potassium
T0	51.88 ± 0.38^e	3.48 ± 0.13^d	151.03 ± 0.29e	28.23 ± 0.21^c	359.35 ± 0.36e
T1	66.29 ± 0.58^d	5.52 ± 0.39^c	25.52 ± 0.39d	45.58 ± 0.36^b	578.61 ± 0.34d
T2	72.75 ± 0.62^c	6.45 ± 0.45^bc	268.12 ± 0.85c	46.79 ± 0.18^a	605.37 ± 0.55c
T3	79.51 ± 0.41^b	7.42 ± 0.58^b	325.65 ± 0.57b	47.26 ± 0.35^a	616.11 ± 0.84b
T4	86.92 ± 0.75^a	8.48 ± 0.12^a	378.81 ± 0.47a	47.54 ± 0.27^a	639.20 ± 0.58a

However, phosphorus is an integral part of bones, teeth, and soft tissues and plays an important role in acid–base equilibrium and phosphorylation processes. Due to the presence in most food, high absorption deficiency of phosphorus is not common.^[43] A study conducted by observed that the replacement of sesame meal in wheat flour to make bread improves the mineral composition such as sodium (3.69–10.45 mg/100 g), calcium (35.91 mg/100 g), potassium (180.72–355.85 mg/100 g), zinc (1.70–2.49 mg/100 g), and iron (2.35–3.57 mg/100 g), respectively. These results were in alignment with the findings of the current study (Table 3).

The results are also in line by comparing the findings by who prepared cookies by adding different levels of defatted sesame flour and observed that levels of magnesium increased from 57.19 to 265.13 mg/100 g and iron increased from 3.03 to 4.78 mg/100 g. Another study conducted by Abbas et al.^[21] identified that supplementation of sesame cake flour in doughnuts increased the mineral content including calcium (84.26–236.38 mg/100 g), phosphorus (468.32–520.18 mg/100 g), potassium (338.65–392.52 mg/100 g), and magnesium (35.06–76.21 mg/100 g), respectively. It has been observed by Sibt-E-abbas et al.^[21] that sesame flour contains Fe (9.17 mg/100 g), K (582 mg/100 g), and Ca (1121 mg/100 g). However, the variations in mineral composition of sesame flour were observed due to variety difference and processing conditions. Reported the difference in minerals in sesame flour due to processing conditions such as roasting, toasting, fermentation, sprouting, and cooking with respect to time. In the current study, it has been observed that sesame flour consists of high amount of Ca, Fe, P, Mg, and K. Thus, the current study has been shown a significant increase in the mineral content with the fortification of sesame seed flour as the mineral content increased when the sesame concentration increased among different treatments, and the above-discussed studies strongly coordinate with the findings of the current study.

Phytochemical analysis performed of sesame seeds bars

Total phenolic contents (mg GAE/100 g)

Table 5 indicates the TPCs of barley bars fortified with sesame seeds. Results of the study revealed the highly significant relationship among different treatments used for the preparation of bars supplemented with sesame seeds. The lowest TPC was observed among T₀ as 37.58%, whereas the highest content of TPC was observed among T₄ as 99.43%. It has been observed that the TPC increases with the increase in sesame seeds in all treatments. These results were in line with the findings by Ghosh et al.^[12] who prepared chia seed spread with the addition of 30% sesame seed flour; however, the TPC was observed as 70.73  ±  0.01 mg GAE/100 g. Another study by Hashempour‐Baltork et al.^[13] who prepared puffed corn snacks with the incorporation of different levels of sesame seed powder demonstrated that 15% addition of sesame seed powder in puffed corn snacks results in the increase in TPC as 75 mg GAE/100 g. The difference in results may be due to many factors like temperature and oxidation of TPC by air because these are very sensitive compounds.

Table 5. Phytochemical composition of sesame seed bars.

Treatments	TPC (mg GAE/100g)	TFC (QE mg/g)	DPPH activity %
T0	37.58 ± 0.45e	110.85 ± 0.59^e	5.62 ± 0.08e
T1	6.73 ± 0.55d	145.91 ± 0.2^d	8.02 ± 0.12b
T2	73.97 ± 0.78c	160.58 ± 0.37^c	8.81 ± 0.13a
T3	86.33 ± 0.48b	178.53 ± 0.31^b	7.00 ± 0.10d
T4	99.43 ± 0.26a	196.50 ± 0.50^a	7.32 ± 0.11c

Total flavonoid contents (QE mg/g)

Results for TFCs of barley bars fortified with sesame seeds have been listed in Table 5. Results of the study revealed the highly significant relationship among different treatments used for the preparation of bars supplemented with sesame seeds. The lowest content for TFC was observed among T₀ as 110.85%, whereas the highest TFC was observed among T₄ as 196.50%. It has been revealed from the results of current study that TFC increases with the increase in sesame seeds in barely flour bars. The findings of the present study was in accordance with the findings of Disseka et al.^[11] who prepared the weaning food by using millet flour, sesame flour, and moringa powder and observed that the incorporation of high level of sesame flour increased the TFC as 192 mg CE/100 g in the final product. Another study conducted by Fasuan et al.^[44] in which spaghetti pasta was prepared using amaranth, sesame flour, and sorghum starch found that the TFC in product was increased to 180 mg CE/100, and hence, the findings of the current study were aligning with these results. However, the TFC value is linked with the amount of sesame flour, which affect the concentration of TFC in product.

Antioxidant activity (DPPH %)

Results for antioxidant activity of barley bars fortified with sesame seeds have been listed in Table 5. Results of the study revealed the slightly significant relationship among different treatments used for the preparation of bars supplemented with sesame seeds. As the lowest activity was observed among T₀ as 10.13%, whereas the highest activity was observed among T₄ as 7.32%. Results of the current study were partially in accordance with the findings by Fasuan et al.^[44]

Physical analysis performed of sesame seed bars

Physical analysis of food products is performed to evaluate the quality, safety, and nutritional value of food products. The physical properties of food products are directly related to their texture, color, flavor, and overall consumer acceptance. Therefore, the physical analysis is important in ensuring that food products meet consumer expectations and regulatory standards.^[45]

Texture analysis

Texture is an important sensory attribute of food products. Texture analysis is performed to measure the mechanical properties of food products, such as hardness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, and elasticity. Texture analysis helps to ensure the consistent product quality and optimize processing conditions.^[46]

Table 6 indicates the results of texture analysis of barley flour bars fortified with sesame seeds. The texture of bars measured in terms of maximum force known as hardness (g). Results indicated that the lowest hardness was observed among T₄ as 291.33  ±  2.52 g, whereas the maximum hardness has been observed among T₀ as 495.78  ±  2.48 g; thus, the results of the current study indicate that hardness of the barley bars decreases from T₀ to T₄ with the increase in sesame seed flour. However, variations in the texture were due to differences in the the concentration of sesame seeds such as T₀, T₁, T₂, T₃, and T₄ that contain sesame seeds 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%, respectively. However, the texture value decreases significantly with the increase in sesame seed amount as decrease in the hardness of the bars indicates tightening of the protein network. The findings of the present study were aligning with the research conducted by Abbas et al.^[29] who prepared the high protein energy food bars with supplementation of sesame seeds. It was concluded that the hardness of the sesame bars was considerably decreased with the the increase in sesame.

Table 6. Physical properties of sesame seed bars.

Treatments	Texture analysis	Color analysis			Caloric analysis
		L-value	a-value	b-value
T0	495.78 ± 2.48^a	40.13 ± 1.50^e	13.26 ± 1.16^e	26.31 ± 1.18^d	512.32 ± 1.06^e
T1	446.78 ± 1.93^b	46.90 ± 1.94^d	24.46 ± 1.28^d	36.31 ± 2.07^c	532.00 ± 2.00^a
T2	389.45 ± 2.30^c	54.76 ± 1.23^c	31.71 ± 1.31^c	39.93 ± 1.03^c	530.70 ± 0.43^b
T3	347.05 ± 1.85^d	61.72 ± 1.54^b	38.42 ± 1.09^b	47.60 ± 1.74^b	523.34 ± 0.79^d
T4	291.33 ± 2.52^e	72.70 ± 1.95^a	43.36 ± 1.44^a	54.09 ± 1.39^a	528.58 ± 0.23^c

Results of a recent study conducted by Mancebo et al.^[47] also found that by increasing the protein content in the cookies reduced the hardness of cookies; these findings were also in accordance with the findings of the current study. Another study related to texture was conducted by Małecki et al.^[14] in which different protein sources were used to make high protein bars to demonstrate the physicochemical, nutritional, and microstructure properties of bars. Results indicated that the degree of hardness is directly linked with the concentration of protein used in the bars. By using little amount of protein in the bar, the structure was liquid and ductile in nature, and on the other hand, using a large amount of protein in bars makes loose and crumbling structure. Texture of bars was also depending upon the type of protein used. However, in the conducted study, the treatment T₁ (75% barley flour and 25% sesame seeds) was acceptable as a higher percentage of barley results in hard texture and affect the color and flavor; on the other hand, the formulation in which the barley flour% age was also high makes it unacceptable because of dark color, smoky flavor, undesirable taste, and loose texture. The texture property of the selected product improved because of the fat and protein in the sesame flour due to the addition of clarified butter that was used to make the product/bars. As the % age of sesame flour increased, the texture of the product also improved and hardness decreased.

Color analysis

Color has a significant effect on the acceptability and quality of the final product. It can be measured with senses and also by many equipment and techniques. The current study used (lab scan spectrophotometer V1A30, Hunter Associate Lab Inc., Reston, VA) to evaluate the color of bars. It provides readings of three attributes in terms of L* (lightness), a* (+ redness, ˗ greenness), and b* (+ yellowness, ˗ blueness). Table 5 indicates the results of color analysis (L, a & b values) of barley flour bars fortified with sesame seeds. It has been demonstrated from the results of the current study that the average values of L* of sesame bars ranged from 40.13 to 72.70. The highest value of L* was observed among T₄ as 72.70  ±  1.95 fortified with 100% sesame seeds and lowest value of L* was observed in T₀ with 0% sesame seeds as 40.13  ±  1.50. The L* value in other treatments also differ significantly, as L* increased from T₀ to T₄ as shown in Table 5. Like L* value, a* and b* values also increase with the increase in sesame seeds among different treatments. The highest value of a* and b* were observed among T₄ as 43.36  ±  1.44 and 54.09  ±  1.39, respectively, whereas the lowest value of a* and b* were observed among T₁ as 13.26  ±  1.16 and 26.31  ±  1.18, respectively. However, variations in color (L*, a* and b*) values of treatments of sesame bars is due to the difference in the amount of sesame seeds as the level of sesame seeds increased the color values increased and the color of sesame bars become darker.

In the current study, the values for L*, a*, and b* were similar to the findings reported by Prakash et al.^[48] who observed that by increasing the sesame cake flour into biscuits the color value of biscuits became darker. L* (lightness) values for bars with the addition of sesame seeds ranged from 52.72 to 57.75. Another study Al Shehry.^[49] prepared the sesame-durum wheat flour blends couscous and evaluated the color by measuring the L* (100 = white, 0 = black), a* (+ redness, - greenness), and b* (+ yellow, - blueness) values by using Hunter Lab Color method. The results demonstrated that sesame flour addition changes the values of L*, a*, and b* compared to control sample. The dark and yellow values of couscous were increased due to Millard reaction and change the color of final product. Azeez et al.^[50] prepared noodles by adding unripe plantain and defatted sesame flour blends. One of the parameters demonstrated in this study was change in color by adding the sesame flour. As the % age sesame flour was increased, the color became darker because Millard reaction between amino and carbonyl groups occurred which imparts darker color to the noodles. The L* value of noodles ranged from 36.67 to 58.66. All results from the above-mentioned studies supports our product characterization that the color of the product becomes dark as the concentration of the sesame flour increased.

Energy value (k-cal) of sesame seeds bars

With the increase in human awareness and literacy rate, consumers are now aware about the importance of energy intake. Furthermore, consumers are looking to get the higher energy by consuming the single product that carries the diverse nutritional profile. The calorific value of food indicates the total amount of energy a human body could generate during its metabolism, which is expressed in kilojoules per 100 g or 100 mL. The calorific value of food is generally expressed in kilocalories as kcal.^[51]

Table 6 indicates the results for the energy value of barley flour bars supplemented with different concentrations of sesame seeds. Results of the study revealed the highly significant relationship of different treatments used for the preparation of sesame seed bars. It has been observed that the highest energy value was obtained in T₄ as 541.4  ±  1.50 K-Cal and the lowest energy value was observed in T₀ with the value share of 512.32  ±  1.06 K-Cal. Results of the current study clearly indicate that the energy value of the bars increases with the increase in concentration of sesame seeds in the barley flour.

The primary reason for a high energy value with the addition of high mount of sesame seeds is its proximate composition that shows the presence of high amount of fats and proteins in the sesame seed powder. Both nutrients possess a high amount of energy as compared to carbohydrates and increase the energy value. It can be observed that the high energy value of sesame seed- supplemented bars is not due to carbohydrate content, but a significant increase in caloric value is due to the increased protein content in the bars, and it is considered as the best source of energy intake. The consequences of the current findings were in parallel with the outcome of the study by Kaur et al.^[52] who studied the sesame seed substitution in wheat flour to analyze the impact on the textural, sensory, and energy values of the bars and observed a high caloric value due to the high protein and fat content.

Sensory analysis

Color, taste, texture, holding ability, and overall acceptability were determined through sensory panel of five individuals that were semi-trained before the experiment, and a 9-point hedonic scale was used to measure the likeness and dis-likeness of the product. Table 7 indicates the results of sensory analysis of sesame seeds. The results indicate that the scores for color, taste, texture, holding ability, and overall acceptability were lower among all treatments (T₀, T₁, T₂, & T₄) except T₃ but not significantly (p > .05). Maximum scores were obtained by T₃ for color, taste, texture, holding ability, and overall acceptability as 9.62%, 8.18%, 8.74%, 8.52%, and 7.88%, respectively. The current findings were in accordance with the findings by Sharma et al.^[53] and Prakash et al.^[48] who have utilized sesame seeds as a major source of protein to overcome malnutrition, and the products were highly acceptable.

Table 7. Sensory score of sensory attributes for sesame seed bars.

Treatments	Color acceptability	Taste acceptability	Texture acceptability	Holding ability	Overall acceptability
T0	6.24 ± 1.54e	4.25 ± 1.13b	5.00 ± 1.00b	5.32 ± 1.02^e	5.40 ± 1.32e
T1	8.14 ± 1.81c	5.62 ± 1.14ab	6.62 ± 1.14ab	5.79 ± 1.25^d	5.58 ± 1.14d
T2	8.57 ± 1.56b	7.23 ± 1.08ab	7.92 ± 1.06ab	7.22 ± 1.16^b	7.35 ± 1.61b
T3	9.62 ± 1.34a	8.18 ± 1.19a	8.74 ± 1.21a	8.52 ± 1.30^a	7.88 ± 1.05a
T4	7.78 ± 1.07d	6.73 ± 1.20ab	6.44 ± 1.25ab	6.64 ± 1.47^c	6.18 ± 1.19c

Conclusion

According to the findings of this research, a supplementation of sesame flour of up to 75% improves the nutritional qualities of bars, while the greatest level of sensory evaluation was also found at the 75% level of substitution. The group of judges preferred T₃ the best out of all the treatments based on the sensory attributes it possessed, followed by T₀, T₁, T₂, and T₄ in that order. T₄ was the least popular treatment. The proportion of treatments that were deemed appropriate (T₃) was 25:75 as barley flour:sesame seed powder. The incorporation of sesame seed flour resulted in a substantial improvement to the overall nutritional profile. However, the active components of barley and sesame seeds can be isolated and employed in a wide variety of food products, including not only other native fermented foods but also other traditional and indigenous fermented foods. However, it has been concluded as a very simple approach to overcome the burden of protein energy malnutrition.

Credit authorship contribution statement

Zainab Irshad, Muhammad Aamir, Farhan Saeed, and Muhammad Afzaal designed the study and conducted under their supervision. Zainab Irshad and Noor Akram performed the study and participated in drafting the article with Aasma Asghar, Yasir Abbas Shah, and Zargham Faisal. Muhammad Aamir, Muhammad Afzaal, and Huda Ateeq helped in developing the whole concept and editing. Noor Akram and Yasir Abbas Shah helped in preparing figures and tables, and the overall quality of the manuscript was maintained by Mohammad Rizwan Khan. Moreover, Aftab Ahmed, Rosa Busquets, Farhan Saeed, and Muhammad Afzaal wrote, edited, and revised the manuscript critically. Degnet Teferi Asres was revised the final written paper. The final version of the manuscript has been read and approved by all listed authors.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia, for funding this research work through the project no. IFKSUOR3–267-2.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Even though adequate data have been given in the form of tables and figures, all authors declare that if more dataare required then the data will be provided on a request basis.