Exploring the correlation of space creation in Suzhou classical gardens and the Chinese calligraphy Yan Zhenqing’s three manuscripts

ABSTRACT

Chinese calligraphy and Suzhou classical gardens exhibit unique and distinctive formal attributes and layout styles. This paper examines the interrelationships from a spatial perspective, using classical gardens such as the Humble Administrators’ Garden, the Lingering Garden, and the Master of Nets Garden, alongside Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts (颜公三稿), as illustrative examples. From the theoretical stance of “Heterogeneous Homology”, this investigation assesses the comparability between calligraphy and garden design. It highlights the shared spatial features of “Emptiness-Substance” and “Denseness-Sparseness”, analyzing their specific applications within each realm. Furthermore, the “Correspondence and Guidance” is fulfilled to effectively integrate the spatial boundary within their respective domains. The findings reveal profound similarities in spatial construction between calligraphy and garden design, highlighting the traditional Chinese aesthetic pursuits of emptiness, distance, and externality. These findings affirm the ancient Chinese pursuit of the natural philosophical concept of “the unity of nature and human”. Consequently, it is proposed that future design and urban spatial planning should emphasize the application of the spatial techniques and cultural meanings embedded in these arts. This approach aims to provide a multidimensional and detailed interdisciplinary perspective on future research concerning Asian architectural culture and art history.

KEYWORDS:

• Chinese calligraphy
• Suzhou classical gardens
• Denseness-Sparseness
• Emptiness-Substance
• correspondence and guidance

1. Introduction

Rooted in the collective influence of traditional Chinese thought, classical Chinese gardens and calligraphy stand as quintessential representations of the spatial dimensions within traditional arts. Their artistic manifestations are closely interconnected, showcasing a uniformity in objectives and a parallelism in their stylistic languages. The “Pan-Art Theory”, a notable concept within ancient Chinese aesthetic philosophy, promotes the appreciation of one art form in the context of another. Reflecting on historical integration, Guo, (n.d) elucidated in his work “Lin Quan Gao Zhi” that poetry acts as an ethereal painting, and painting, a silent poetry, emphasizing the mutual interpretability among different artistic disciplines. From its inception during the Yin and Shang periods (1600–1046 BCE), calligraphy has presented a spectrum of distinct, cohesive artistic styles through successive dynasties, paralleling the significance of architecture in Western art historical discourse. This perspective enables the examination of stylistic attributes across artistic fields through calligraphy’s unique features, offering insights for comparative studies between calligraphy and garden architecture.

Research on Chinese gardens and calligraphy has produced an extensive and broad spectrum of scholarly work, yet the study of their interconnectedness remains an area ripe for further exploration. In response, this article undertakes a detailed search for literature on “gardens” and “calligraphy” within both Chinese (primarily through CNKI) and international (chiefly via Web of Science) journal databases, finding that pertinent studies account for about one-tenth of the total, predominantly published in the last ten years. Summarizing this body of work reveals three principal areas of focus. The initial area concerns the comparative analysis of the form, language, and logic of expression in both arts. In her analysis of “Orchid Pavilion Preface” by Wang Xizhi, a renowned Chinese calligrapher, Dai and Zhang (2012, 95–98) concludes that the concept of garden creation was influenced by ancient Chinese intellectuals’ contemplative engagement with natural landscapes. Wang Xizhi used the motif of “winding streams and floating cups” as an ideal representation, reflecting the literati’s idealization of embedding emotions in natural scenery. This perspective revisits the garden scenes from that era. Although the Wei-Jin period (220–420 AD) was marked by rich cultural and intellectual thought, the prime development of private gardens in Jiangnan occurred much later, during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1644 AD). The scholar does not address the chronological disparities in the linkage between these artistic expressions and their cultural and intellectual contexts. Tang and Wei (2017, 19) analyzed the relationship between space and calligraphy in terms of “Yi”(意:meaning), “Shi”(势:tendency)，and “Jing”(境: ambiance) from an architectural perspective, providing a broad overview of the potential factors linking the two. This analysis serves as a reference for this paper’s exploration of the connection between gardens and calligraphy from a spatial perspective. However, Tang did not detail the limitations in the formal expression of specific case studies between the two. Yang’s (2018, 12, p. 38–41) research, focusing on the typological extraction of dots, lines, and planes common to both gardens and calligraphy, identified the shared aesthetic characteristics of both in terms of spatial semantics and syntax, yet did not provide specific comparative examples to support his views.

The second level explores the methodologies and functionalities of Chinese calligraphy within garden spaces. Feng and Zhao’s (2002, 01, p. 18–20 + 55) analysis of the functional value of “inscriptions and couplets” in Chinese calligraphy, from a literary perspective, elucidates how this approach can complement and refine garden construction, offering a calligraphic perspective on the holistic study of garden space creation. However, detailed strategies and methods are not extensively outlined. Yang and Zhang (2021, 09, p. 150–152) initiate their study with Xie He’s Six Principles, grounded in traditional Chinese aesthetics, to establish a connection and explore the potential correspondence between these principles and garden creation methods, aiming to provide a novel methodological framework for garden construction. Nevertheless, the lack of evenly matched empirical cases and specific calligraphic examples for direct comparison with listed garden forms is noted. Cao and Zhu (2020, 22, p. 309–314) approach the direct relationship between calligraphy and gardens from a historical perspective, extending to the characteristics of ideological reconstruction in the contemporary context. By comparing the “Yi”(意:meaning) and the “Xing”(形:form), they summarize the application methods and mutual influence of calligraphy on modern garden landscape art. This perspective offers strategic guidance for this research, though the broad scope of the study goals precludes detailed discussion.

The third level focuses on the exploration of creative contexts and objectives associated with both calligraphy and gardens. Jiang and Liu (2014, 04, p. 107–110) argues that in the domain of garden art, Chinese calligraphy acts as a material medium for creating ambiance, significantly influencing the evolution of Chinese gardens. Nonetheless, this analysis neglects the constraints of considering calligraphy and gardens as separate visual languages. On another note, Xu and Li (2021, 07, p. 64–65) interpret the aesthetic alignment between gardens and calligraphy, examining both the surface-level norms and the deeper meanings. Their approach aims to inform the design principles of contemporary garden spaces, yet it is sometimes hampered by a lack of specific examples and tends to generalize methods and principles too broadly.

According to existing research, the analysis of the relationship between Chinese calligraphy and Chinese gardens from a spatial perspective is still insufficiently developed. Additionally, most arguments lack specific comparative cases, remaining at a broad disciplinary level, and there is a shortage of visual models to support similarities between the two. Therefore, this paper investigates the type of connectivity that exists between gardens and calligraphy from a spatial standpoint, focusing on three main questions: firstly, the types of spaces that constitute Chinese calligraphy and gardens; secondly, how similar spatial expressions are crafted through specific techniques; and how these similar construction techniques reflect Chinese traditional philosophical thoughts and aesthetic characteristics. To address these issues, the paper employs case study analyses of images and models to examine and distill the spatial types present in Chinese calligraphy and gardens (Figure 1). It compares these from the perspectives of spatial creation and organization, choosing Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts as a representative example Chinese calligraphy and comparing it with classical Suzhou gardens such as the Humble Administrator’s Garden, Lingering Garden, and Master of Nets Garden (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Research methodological framework.

Figure 2. “Ji Bo Fu Gao”, “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”, “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie” (left). Source: Wikipedia Commons. Right Image: Floor plans of the Humble Administrator’s Garden, Lingering Garden, Master of Nets Garden, and Lion Grove Garden (right). Source: Liu Dunzhen’s “Classical Gardens of Suzhou,” Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press, 2005, pages 306, 307; 342, 343; 371; 397).

The selection of Yan Zhenqings’ works underscores his significance as a figure who transitioned from a style emphasizing adherence to “rule”(尚法) to a focus on “sense”(尚意), with his life’s work reflecting a unique artistic pivot. In Describing Zhang Changshi’s Twelve Artistic Concepts (Yan 1979), there is a passage that reads:

The key is to grasp the brush, keeping it smooth and unhindered, without constraint. Secondly, understanding the principles; this involves the oral transmission and hands-on instruction of the rules, avoiding excesses. Then comes arrangement, neither too fast nor too slow, skillfully achieving appropriateness. Finally, using fine materials for ink and paper. Last but not least, adapting to one’s sentiments, freely letting go, and still adhering to rules and standards. With these five aspects in place, one can then be on par with the ancients.

“Writing without constraint” precisely elucidates the application of standards in a flexible manner, suggesting that adher ence to “rule” need not be overly rigid. Apart from “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”, Yan Zhenqing’s “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie” and “Ji Bo Fu Gao”, collectively known as the Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts, demonstrate his creative ingenuity following a foundation of adhering to standards while innovatively integrating “sense” (Song 2016, 42). In the realm of calligraphy, this approach of honoring “rule” and seeking “sense” finds a connection with the principles of garden design embodied in the phrase “though made by man, it appears as if created by nature” (Ji, Yuanye, and Chen 1988, 187).

In summary, by employing a spatial perspective as an entry point, this analysis explores the differing spatial construction techniques of both disciplines, revealing their characteristics of solidity and void, as well as density and sparseness. Through techniques of echoing and guiding to connect spaces, this approach not only breaks down barriers between two distinct academic fields but also lays a theoretical foundation for constructing a study on their interconnectivity. It aims to enrich the study of classical gardens in Southern China with an alternative cultural viewpoint.

2. Background and spatial characteristics in Yan Zhenqing’s three manuscripts and Suzhou classical gardens

2.1. Exploring the cultural foundations of Chinese calligraphy and gardens

The term “Heterotopic Homology” in biology refers to organs or tissues that, although located in different positions, share the same developmental origin. This concept is crucial for understanding the developmental relationships between different organisms as well as within the same organism, and it is particularly applied extensively in the fields of evolutionary biology and developmental biology. Similarly, in the realms of culture and art, the concept of “Heterotopic Homology” is used to describe relationships between different cultures or artistic forms. Despite variations in expression and external characteristics, these cultural or artistic forms may originate from a common source or be influenced by similar cultural impacts and creative inspirations. In the context of rapid globalization today, such phenomena are especially pronounced, showcasing the interplay and fusion among cultures as well as the mutual influences and evolutionary processes among various art forms. By exploring and analyzing this concept, we can gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms behind biological diversity and the formation processes of cultural diversity. This is significantly important for promoting global cultural exchanges and cooperation, as well as for the conservation efforts of both biological and cultural diversities.

The classical gardens of Suzhou and Chinese calligraphy, as two paramount artistic expressions of Chinese traditional culture, demonstrate their “Heterotopic Homology” relationship through a spatial perspective. A comparative analysis across the dimensions of cultural philosophy, aesthetic features, and philosophical depth provides a deeper understanding of their intrinsic connections and commonalities: Suzhou classical gardens represent the pinnacle of ancient Chinese garden art, reflecting a profound understanding of nature, life, and the cosmos. These gardens embody the principle of “seeing the large in the small”, achieved through meticulous spatial arrangement and the use of elements that illustrate the traditional Chinese cultural ideals of “unity of man and nature” and “integration of object and self.” For instance, the design philosophy of the Humble Administrator’s Garden includes the concepts of “oneness of object and self, and the coexistence of emptiness and substance”. Its Fucui Pavilion (Figure 3) showcases these aesthetic features through landscape designs that alternate between the solid and the void, depicting interdependence and the importance of the whole and the part in traditional Chinese culture. conversely, Chinese calligraphy, as a sublime expression of literary art, also serves as both a legacy and a manifestation of cultural essence. Calligraphy transcends mere writing; it is an expression of spirit and an aesthetic pursuit. It embodies the aesthetic philosophy of “unity of man and nature”, as seen in Wang Xizhi’s “Orchid Pavilion Preface”, which not only displays exquisite brushwork and composition but also subtly conveys an appreciation for the beauty of nature and human sentiment. Calligraphic artists, through their use of space and emotive ink play, integrate natural landscapes and human emotions into their characters, reflecting an aesthetic pursuit of “harmony between heart and hand, and transcendence of the artistic conception”. This analysis not only highlights the shared aesthetic and philosophical underpinnings of these two art forms but also enriches our understanding of the broader cultural and artistic dialogues within Chinese tradition.

Figure 3. Fucui Pavilion (left). Source: Photographed by the author. Wang Xizhi’s “Orchid Pavilion Preface” (right). Source: Wikipedia Commons.

Through the comparative analysis above, we have gained a comprehensive understanding of the “Heterotopic Homology” between Suzhou classical gardens and Chinese calligraphy. These art forms not only integrate with each other in terms of cultural philosophy and aesthetic characteristics, but also reflect the holistic pursuit of nature, humanity in traditional Chinese culture.

2.2. The background of Yan Zhenqing’s three manuscripts and Suzhou classical gardens

Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts refers to the semi-cursive calligraphy works created by the Tang Dynasty calligrapher Yan Zhenqing: “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”, “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie” and “Ji Bo Fu Gao”, collectively known as Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts. These drafts are quintessential representations of the semi-cursive style during the Tang Dynasty, marking Yan Zhenqing’s transition from a style emphasizing strict adherence (“rule”) to form towards one that prioritizes expression (“sense”). This shift can be summarized by three factors: 1) Social context, which evolved from the early Tang rulers’ belief that free and active literary thoughts could undermine their control, to the flourishing Tang era, where overly rigid adherence to rules stifled the reflection of societal prosperity and cultural diversity in literary works; 2) Personal background, considering Yan Zhenqing’s mentorship under the “Sage of Calligraphy” Wang Xizhi, absorbing the essence of Wang’s style, and his exchanges with contemporaries like Zhang Xu and Huai Su, who were masters of the semi-cursive script; 3) Content of the manuscripts, which record mourning for his brother and nephew, victims of betrayal during the An Lushan Rebellion, channeling his grief, sadness, and disillusionment into the calligraphy.

Surveying the development history of Suzhou gardens, it can be broadly categorized into three periods: from the late Spring and Autumn period to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, from the Tang Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty, and the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In the first period, Suzhou gardens were predominantly royal, with notable projects such as the Gusu Platform, Helü City, and Xu River as recorded in the history of the Wu state. After King Fuchai of Wu ascended the throne, significant enhancements were made to the palace’s Qin platform, and the Wutong Garden and Deer Platform were constructed. Sun Quan of Eastern Wu later established Fangshu Garden, Luoxing Garden, and Guilin Palace in Suzhou, initiating the emergence of private gardens, albeit still in a royal artistic style, focusing on practical value and grand scale. In the second phase, influenced by the burgeoning of landscape painting, Suzhou gardens began to evolve towards landscape-oriented designs, influenced by the principle of “seeing the large in the small” and painting theories, leading to a gradual reduction in garden size, with the Canglang Pavilion exemplifying private gardens of this era. By the Song and Yuan periods, due to the region’s economic prosperity and the prevalent wealthy merchant class, garden ownership transitioned from rulers to the common populace. Influenced by Daoist and Zhuangzi philosophies, garden creators sought transcendence and spiritual wandering, freeing gardens from size constraints. This led to an overreliance on rockeries to fulfill emotional needs towards nature, with some gardens featuring exaggerated rock and lake stones, such as the Lion Grove Garden, famous for its Yuan Dynasty rockery. During the Ming and Qing periods, influenced by the nascent capitalism in Suzhou and rapid industrial development, the arts flourished unprecedentedly, with literati painters, represented by the “Wumen School”, directly participating in garden design, striving for a blend of realism and artifice. The Humble Administrator’s Garden exemplifies this period, centered around water, with architecture by the water, surrounded by trees, and winding banks, aiming for a poetic and natural garden ambiance. The Lingering Garden and the Master of the Nets Garden, emphasizing restraint and subtlety, also showcase the grandeur of gardens encapsulating worlds within them.

2.3. The spatial characteristics of Yan Zhenqing’s three manuscripts and Suzhou classical gardens

The distinctiveness of Chinese calligraphy from that of other countries lies in its forms of expression and the tools used for writing. Chinese characters, having been essentially standardized since the Han Dynasty, transitioned from a symbolic pictographic language to a written form comprised of basic strokes (dot, horizontal, vertical, left slant, right slant, bend, and hook). These strokes, as structural elements, combine to form the basic spatial element “rooms”, which come together to create the smallest spatial unit, the “word”. Words combine according to the need for information transmission to form spatial units called “phrase”, and as the content to be expressed grows in complexity, spatial “sentences” are formed. Thus, the spatial composition of Chinese characters consists of “rooms” and “structure”. Additionally, the brush’s inherent elasticity and absorbency not only provide a basis for the variation of these strokes but also enable a rich spatial variation between individual characters and vertical rows of characters, manifested through the gradation of ink on the paper, creating a relationship of black, white, and gray against the paper background. This results in three expressions in the calligraphy writing process: 1) “word”: spatial variations within each individual character space; 2) “phrase”: the spatial variations between words; 3) “Sentence”: the vertical spacing variations created by groups of phrases (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Basic Spatial Archetypes and the Framework of Generative Logic in Gardens and Calligraphy. Source: Drawn by the author.

In gardens, elements like architecture, plants, rocks, and water bodies can be considered analogous to the stroke elements in Chinese character calligraphy. Through the combination and layout of these elements, several spatial nodes of varying sizes are formed. In architecture, structures such as pavilions, platforms, towers, and halls constitute the basic architectural space units in gardens, while rockeries and water bodies create four groups of basic landscape space units like plant landscape embankments and rockery embankments. Between architecture and landscape, there are two types of basic greening space units: natural plant edge greening spaces and rockery edge greening spaces. These basic space units together form the “words” of garden spaces, which, based on the site’s function and needs, compose “phrases” and “sentences” that carry complex information, ultimately shaping the overall appearance of the garden (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Analysis of Basic Spatial Archetypes and Their Generative Processes in Gardens and Calligraphy. Source: Drawn by the author.

3. The common spatial characteristics: emptiness-substance, denseness-sparseness and correspondence-guidance

Emptiness and substance are two opposite sides, referring to central to the aesthetic and compositional strategies of traditional Chinese art, significantly influencing garden design, painting, and calligraphy. “Emptiness” refers to open or visually expansive spaces, such as bodies of water and open courtyards, while “substance” denotes the tangible elements such as buildings, rockeries, and vegetation. In calligraphy, this concept is mirrored in the arrangement of strokes and the strategic spacing between characters and lines. Denseness and sparseness convey the compactness or sparseness of elements within a layout or structure, crucial in influencing the vigor and aesthetic harmony of artworks in both gardens and calligraphy.

3.1. Emptiness-substance

In the spatial design of Suzhou’s classical gardens, architecture and rockeries represent “substance”, while forests and water bodies signify the “emptiness”, exuding openness, and tranquility. Compared to the “substance” of rockeries and buildings, water features often convey a sense of spaciousness and calmness, enhancing the depth of the space when paired together. To mitigate the abrupt transition between the tangible architecture and rock formations and the intangible surface of the water, semi-tangible elements like vegetation are interspersed, facilitating a smooth transition between different spatial layers. For instance, similar techniques are employed in the Master of the Nets Garden with Xiaoshancong Pavilion, the central water body in the Humble Administrator’s Garden looking west towards the Beisi Pagoda, the curved corridors in the central waterscape of the Lingering Garden, and the Lotus Pavilion in the Lion Grove Garden. The distinction in these approaches lies in the Master of the Nets Garden and the Lingering Garden using rockery embankments for the substance – emptiness interface, whereas the other gardens use vegetative landscapes. Additionally, there’s a special manifestation of “substance” and “emptiness” elements, where the “substance” spaces formed by buildings, rockeries, water, and vegetation in the garden contrast with the “emptiness” aspect of changing seasons. Guo, (n.d) in Lin Quan Gao Zhi articulates this feature: a mountain viewed in spring or summer, at dusk, or under different weather conditions, embodies the changing states of morning and evening, suggesting a single mountain yet evoking the essence of hundreds. Thus, the scenic beauty of a garden during a rainy day, in snowy twilight, amidst autumn winds, or at dawn, each resonates uniquely with the seasons, each possessing its own charm (Figure 6).

Figure 6. “Four Seasons to Four Views” in Suzhou Gardens. Source: http://xhslink.com/h50IwG.

In garden spaces, there exist three typical modes of organizing substance and emptiness to achieve effects (Figure 7). These are: 1) Plants and Architecture, where in the relatively open courtyards of garden spaces, grasslands, low shrubs, or bamboo groves are paired with sparsely arranged plant landscapes; 2) Architecture and Water Systems, where bodies of water in gardens are often enclosed by rock formations, and the calm water surfaces reflect the surrounding scenery and environment, embodying Wen Zhenheng’s (1621, as cited in Wang 2020, 102–104) observation that “rocks convey antiquity, water conveys depth”; 3) The “emptiness” spaces created visually, where traditional Suzhou architecture, known for its whitewashed walls and black tiles, becomes a canvas. The white walls, weathered by natural elements and the humid climate of Suzhou, develop a mottled appearance of moss and markings, reminiscent of ink-wash painting. Surrounding these walls, clusters of bamboo and shrubs cast reflections upon them in bright weather, creating a natural landscape painting within the garden. The blank spaces on the wall, where white is treated as black, aim to express the auspicious sentiment of “emptiness generates purity, fortune comes with tranquility”; a concept similarly cherished in the practice of leaving white space in calligraphy (Li et al., n.d.).

Figure 7. Master of the Nets Garden (top), the Humble Administrator’s Garden (middle left), Lion Grove Garden (middle right), The Humble Administrator’s Garden (bottom). Source: Photographed by the author.

In Yan Zhenqing’s “Three Drafts”, exemplified by the “Ji Zhi Wen Gao” the interplay between substance and emptiness is manifested through the treatment of ink density and the strategic arrangement of blank spaces. The Ming dynasty’s Dong (1979, 541) once offered a precise evaluation of ink control, stating, “The cleverness of calligraphy lies in the use of the brush, especially in the application of ink. Yet, without extensive exposure to the authentic works of the ancients, one can hardly discuss this subtlety”. Similarly, Song dynasty’s Jiang (1979, 389) commented on the use of ink in semi-cursive script, “In semi-cursive, dryness and wetness intermingle; beauty is derived from wetness, and boldness from dryness. Too dense, the brush drags; too dry, the brush starves. This must be understood.” From these descriptions, ink technique plays a significant role in breaking the monotony of textual layouts (Figure 8). In “Ji Bo Fu Gao” the use of ink density and the variation in spacing of individual characters present a spatial relationship of substance and emptiness. The first three columns, columns nine to thirteen, and columns twenty-two and twenty-three, through dense ink application and tight character spacing, highlight the solidity of the text’s presentation, while the rest, through loose character spacing and lighter ink application, create a sense of sparse space. The variation between substance and emptiness in “Ji Zhi Wen Gao” primarily arises from changes in ink density, seen in the ink variation of the first five columns and the heavy ink used in columns thirteen to eighteen to anchor the spatial stability of the text. Notably, in parts of columns eight, nine, fifteen, and the lower halves of the last five columns, local heavy ink application accentuates the spatial variation between upper and lower text regions. The relationship between substance and emptiness in “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie” is somewhat more ambiguous; the first half uses variations in ink density and spacious vertical intervals to contrast substance and emptiness, while the middle to latter sections primarily utilizes dense character spacing to delineate solid spatial interfaces, with light brushwork depicting the intangible, sparse spatial interfaces.

Figure 8. Emptiness and substance analysis of “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”, “Ji Bo Fu Gao”, and “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie”. Source: Drawn by the author; Base map: Wikipedia Commons.

Addressing the abstract characteristics of spatial substance and emptiness in both gardens and calligraphy, through the tangible interpretation via an image language model, the representation of spatial depth in gardens exhibits a more pronounced combination of solidity and void compared to the spatial representation in calligraphy. However, in terms of facade spatial effects, calligraphy’s use of dry and wet, dense and light ink application, alongside its dynamic brushwork, can enrich garden spaces with an artistic flair. The planar compositions of both models are derived from structural components within Suzhou’s classical gardens that express the relationship between substance and emptiness, extracting representative spatial nodes composed of water bodies, vegetation, rockeries, and architecture that demonstrate spatial depth and feature a combination of solidity and void as the planar prototypes (Figure 9). By removing the plant elements and incorporating calligraphic spatial layout characteristics into the facade, a tangible three-dimensional model is ultimately formed. Specifically, in gardens, the solid walls represent the element of paper in calligraphy, serving as the background. On the right, the play of light and shadow created by the winding wall and the changing rhythm of the colonnade expresses the variation in ink density in calligraphy, also subtly referring to the impact of light and shadow on spatial brightness and darkness. The large area of white wall and window openings in the middle section respectively symbolize the normal distribution of ink on the page and the calligrapher’s use of blank space, with the position of the perforated windows representing scattered heavy ink nodes in the calligraphic layout. The “bridge space” depicted over the water signifies the spatial transition between near and far views in gardens and the use of light ink between black ink and blank paper in calligraphy. The circular openings in the wall represent the moon gates in gardens and the form of images created by combining three instances of brush mistakes with nearby heavy ink characters in calligraphy. The facade effect on the far left displays the distribution of heavy ink at the end of the “Ji Zhi Wen Gao” and the interplay of dense and light ink creating a relationship between foreground and background spaces.

Figure 9. Analysis of the diagrammatic language model of emptiness and substance in gardens and calligraphy. Source: Drawn by the author.

3.2. Denseness-sparseness

Lifelong Six Records (Shen, n.d.) put forward the design principles of classical Chinese gardens:

Gardens, pavilions, towers, winding corridors, stacked stones resembling mountains, and planting flowers based on natural inclinations. It’s about creating a sense of smallness within largeness and largeness within smallness, combining the real with the imaginary and the imaginary with the real. Elements may be hidden or revealed, shallow or deep. It’s not just about complex layouts and extensive use of rocks; simplicity should be emphasized to avoid unnecessary labor and expenses.

The notions of “substance within the emptiness” and “emptiness within the substance” guide the complementary pairing of architecture with trees, water bodies, and rockeries with vegetation and water, creating variations of substance-emptiness along with Denseness-Sparseness in garden spaces. This combination highlights the layered nature of garden spaces. In gardens, vegetation elements like trees and flowers often represent sparser spaces, with grouped plants such as grass and bamboo typically surrounding denser areas represented by buildings or standing alone to create sparsely populated areas. Water bodies are usually arranged as low ponds in the central scenic area of the garden or around rockeries, with the tranquil water surfaces serving as carriers of the garden scenery and sky, forming a contrast with the substance scenery. The spatial density variations within a courtyard formed by a single building are composed of three solid spaces: the corridor space (first space), the outdoor space formed by the corridor and the courtyard’s screen wall (second space), and the building’s interior (third space). To minimize the artificial intervention of the landscape, gardeners often plant a large-canopied tree or use rock stacking to divide the space, with these elements playing roles in creating more open spaces. Furthermore, to transition naturally between dense and sparse spaces, octagonal or moon gate screen walls and decorative windows are used to maintain spatial fluidity, embodying open space characteristics. Notable examples include the Washing My Gown Song in the Master of the Nets Garden, the Lotus Fragrance Hall in Yi Garden, and the Distant Fragrance Hall in the Humble Administrator’s Garden (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Analysis of the pictorial language model of denseness and sparseness in gardens and calligraphy. Source: Drawn by the author.

In calligraphy, the contrast of spatial density is manifested through the variation in spacing between characters and vertical columns due to different brushstroke treatments. In “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”, vertical spacing is divided into three uneven levels. The first level is the densest, occupying nearly half of the total proportion, including the first seven columns and columns nine to fifteen, where the spacing between columns is nearly equal. The second level, starting from the eighth column, gradually becomes looser, accounting for nearly a third of the total proportion. The third level is the sparsest, occurring between columns twenty and twenty-one, with the insertion of the four characters “及兹同还” (and thus we return together), similar in size to the main text characters. In “Ji Bo Fu Gao”, the variation in vertical spacing is more uniform, with the spacing between the first six columns and the middle part generally consistent, creating a more open space. From the seventh to the fourteenth column, the spacing begins to densify, with the latter part showing a similar density variation. “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie” exhibits a smoother variation in vertical spacing compared to the first two, particularly in the middle and latter sections. This part, besides interspersing dense and sparse changes, enriches the spatial form through the variation in spacing between characters. Similarly, the control of ink volume and the use of blank spaces can also reflect the spatial density variation in the text. Each work contains five sections of blank spaces and corrections for brush mistakes. After the content in the eighteenth column concludes, the longest blank section in the text follows. Except for the eleventh and twelfth columns, where the blank space is half the height of the preceding characters, the remaining blanks between characters are roughly equal to the height of the characters in the previous column. In the correction between the first and second columns, the calligrapher maintains a consistent ink volume and density variation. Due to a mistake in the eighth column, the spacing in the ninth column is deliberately narrowed to maintain spatial balance, a phenomenon also observed in “Ji Bo Fu Gao” between the ninth and tenth columns. Similarly, a noticeable correction with heavy ink appears between the tenth and eleventh columns, with light ink used in the corresponding twelfth column; the nineteenth and twentieth columns use larger fonts and clearer strokes to differentiate from the previous light ink semi-cursive writing (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Analysis of denseness in “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”, “Ji Bo Fu Gao”, and “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie”. Source: Drawn by the author; Base map: Wikipedia Commons.

Addressing the abstract characteristics of spatial density in gardens and calligraphy, through a concrete translation via an image language model, the variations of density in calligraphy are more pronounced. Therefore, they can enrich the spatial effects of gardens through the form of facades. The planar prototypes for both models are selected from the commonly found courtyard spaces in Suzhou classical gardens. From a planar perspective, the courtyard is semi-enclosed, with the right-side corridor space translating the connected corridor space in gardens. The upper half serves to connect with other spaces, while the lower half corresponds with the inner courtyard, arranged in a grid pattern of columns. This spatial rhythm draws inspiration from the vertical spacing variations in the mentioned three drafts, thereby enclosing the courtyard. The opening in the wall in the middle section signifies the screen wall in the inner courtyard. The enclosed space above represents the interior space of garden architecture. In the center of the left-side plan, enclosed walls utilize a sitting platform of 750 mm-900 mm in height and rectangular windows of 1200 mm in length, aiming to depict the visual flow from “outside the courtyard-inner courtyard-indoors” in gardens. This mirrors the rock stacking and water arranging techniques in garden construction, where rockeries are designed to suggest mountains from a distance, with the set visual height meeting the needs for distant viewing. When approaching the rockery, rockery embankments are often used for sitting and enjoying the water features, similarly fulfilled by the setting of the sitting platform. In the right-side space model, after passing through the narrow, elongated corridor, one reaches a more open space, akin to the entrance arrangement of the Lingering Garden, which employs a technique of subdued introduction. This aims to express the effect of secluded paths in gardens and the visual interaction it creates between seeing and being seen (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Analysis of the diagrammatic language model of denseness and sparseness in Gardens and Calligraphy (Source: Drawn by the author).

3.3. Correspondence and guidance – methods for harmonizing the space boundaries

Gardens and calligraphy achieve a connection between spaces and the expression of form and meaning through diverse manifestations of lines. The line, based on its material presentation, facilitates the guidance and resonance of the viewer’s gaze within the temporal and spatial movement. The means of harmonizing these spatial boundaries are established on the foundation of human psychological and emotional changes, creating a method of boundary treatment. This mode of movement, according to sports psychology, involves a logical coherence in the process of linear motion, such as a static line being the result of a rapid movement phase; this form emerges from numerous quickly moving point elements. Thus, there is a reciprocal relationship between motion behavior and line expression. The existence of this relationship constructs the bond between people and interactive behavior with space. In traditional Chinese concepts of time and space, there is an emphasis on “observing objects to grasp images” (I Ching) meaning understanding the thoughts and principles behind an object’s representation. Therefore, the means and goals of expression need to be unified, as is the case in both gardens and calligraphy. From a psychological perspective on vision, different representations of objects can evoke varied emotions and imaginations in the observer. Gardens and calligraphy, through changes in methods of resonance and guidance, create the characteristics of trajectory changes in the movement of the line element, thereby reading the features of meaning through changes in form.

In calligraphy, by observing the movement of strokes within Chinese characters, one can imagine the calligrapher’s motion changes during the initiation, continuation, and completion of each stroke. This process evokes a holistic concept of unity, as felt through the application of character formation techniques and the layout of spatial arrangements, conveying a sense of coherence throughout the work. By experiencing the transitional techniques between strokes and columns, one appreciates the calligrapher’s approach to different spaces, understanding how the relationship between looseness and tension is articulated through methods of resonance and guidance. Specifically, the connection between characters, a method frequently used by calligraphers to link characters, especially evident in the semi-cursive style, manifests in three forms: 1) Tangible connection refers to the visible trajectory on paper from the last stroke of one character to the first stroke of the next, as seen in the treatment of the character “尔” in “Ji Zhi Wen Gao” and “开” in “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie”; in gardens, this is analogous to visual continuity, such as when a visitor’s line of sight remains unobstructed while navigating through garden corridors, achieving visual coherence; 2) Intangible connection occurs when the trajectory connecting the last stroke of one character to the first stroke of the next is not physically present on paper but exists in the mind, creating a responsive effect between characters, as in “客” “呜” “呼” in “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”. In gardens, this effect arises when elements like rockeries, vegetation, or dense colonnades momentarily obscure the garden view, prompting reliance on the visitor’s movement to the next space; 3) Conceptual connection merges the previous two types, emphasizing the artist’s ability to convey the essence of space, as in “震” “悼” “心” in “Ji Zhi Wen Gao” and “须” “共” “存” in “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie”. This method achieves a flow of essence through a combination of tangible and intangible connections. Similarly, in gardens, techniques reflecting the principles of “water moves as mountains curve, mountains come alive with water’s flow” and “streams meander because of mountains, paths form based on the terrain” (Chen 2017, 87) aim to guide the visitor through interwoven paths formed by the juxtaposition of elements, creating partially hidden garden views. This spatial approach resonates with Rowe (2008) application of Gestalt psychology, phenomenological philosophy, and formalist analysis to the transparency of spatial phenomena (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Techniques of spatial correspondence and guidance in gardens and calligraphy.

Source: Drawn by the author.

The techniques of tangible and intangible connections are also manifested in Suzhou gardens, achieving a spatial effect that combines “Emptiness-Substance” and “Denseness-Sparseness” while emphasizing resonance and guidance. Unlike in calligraphy, “Emptiness” scenes often serve as nodes of intangible connection between different spaces in gardens, facilitating variations in spatial rhythm. For instance, intangible connections in garden rock stacking are found between rocks and ravines, as seen in the central and western sections of the Humble Administrator’s Garden, where the space between mountains and peaks is bridged by water, creating a depth and continuity in space. Tangible connections in gardens are most directly represented by the linkage between tangible scene nodes, such as buildings connected by winding corridors. Additionally, there’s a special form of deliberately concealed guidance, where visitors are subtly hinted at to explore certain garden scenes during their stroll (Liu 2018, 142; Maina 2014). For example, the central water body in the Humble Administrator’s Garden is hidden alongside the Sit-With-Me Pavilion, with the protruding water surface obscured by bushes and flowers, beckoning visitors to venture forward with its partially concealed allure; similarly, the entrance to the Lingering Garden features nearly seventy meters of winding corridors, where visitors are guided to the first open node by glimpses of distant scenery through windows. This technique of screening in spatial treatment guides visitors through narrow, dim corridors, only to reach the most open node at Quxi Building. The spatial strategy of screening focuses on the rhythm of solidity and void, as encapsulated in phrases like “placing bamboo in front of the window to divide the garden” and “a shadowy pavilion under the paulownia, a clear pond reflecting the moon” (Huang 2018), thus achieving a buildup and release in spatial rhythm similar to the entrance of the Lingering Garden (Figure 14).

Figure 14. Path analysis of spatial correspondence and guidance in the Lingering Garden.

Source: Photo by the author; Floor plan: Liu (2005). Classical Gardens of Suzhou. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press, pp. 342–343.

Beyond the technique of screening, there are three other garden landscaping methods that embody resonance and guidance: borrowed scenery, juxtaposed scenery, and framed scenery. In ancient China, there was an emphasis on experiencing the changes of time and space bodily, as stated in the Shen, (n.d), “The astronomical cycles are embodied within oneself.” This notion underscores the ancient Chinese focus on sensing spatial changes with the body. These landscaping techniques are designed to meet people’s psychological needs when experiencing spatial changes. Borrowed scenery, as one of the gardening techniques, often serves as a crucial means of linking different spatial nodes. In the Humble Administrator’s Garden, the “Hidden Beauty” space employs framed scenery through a moon gate, guiding visitors towards the center of the garden to appreciate its landscape. Ji (1988) once described the method of borrowing scenery in Yuanye: “Borrowing scenery is of utmost importance to gardens. This includes borrowing from afar, from neighbors, from above, from below, adapting to the seasons”. This shows that there are five methods of borrowing scenery in garden landscaping alone. The most representative of these is when one passes through the “Hidden Beauty” on the east side of the Humble Administrator’s Garden and looks west from the center of the garden area. By borrowing the distant view of the Baoguang Temple, it integrates with the garden’s architecture, water, and greenery to form a landscape painting with near, middle, and far perspectives, simultaneously obfuscating the garden’s man-made boundaries to complement each other. Additionally, the technique of juxtaposed scenery is exemplified at the Secluded Bamboo Residence, where the moon gate, through special angular treatment, allows the surrounding landscapes to resonate with each other (Figure 15).

Figure 15. Path analysis of “Framed Views, Corresponding Views, and Borrowed Views” in the Humble Administrator’s Garden.

Sources: Floor plan: Liu, D. (2005). Classical Gardens of Suzhou. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press, pp. 306–307; Top left and bottom images: http://xhslink.com/qAsGwG; http://xhslink.com/uiLHcF; Center and right images: Photographed by the author.

In calligraphy, the technique of spatial expansion is similar to the spatial intentions created by juxtaposed scenery and framed scenery in gardens. Yan Zhenqing, particularly fond of seal and clerical scripts, inherits their brushwork method, displaying a tendency for expansion in certain characters while writing “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”. The most distinctive feature of characters showing this outward expansion is the sparseness within the internal space of the character, with the space inside the characters accommodating much larger and thicker sizes than usual. In the text, characters like “覆” (fu), “蒲” (pu), and “摧” (cui) belong to the type where one side of the stroke expands outward in the lower half. For instance, in the character “蒲”, the strength in the central part of “甫” and the outward expansion of the “氵” stroke create additional distance between them, enlarging the internal space of the character and thus making the entire character appear robust and powerful. Additionally, in “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”the sequences “悔祸谁” (regret, disaster, who) and “以清酌” (with clear, to toast) present characters expanding outward to the left and right, forming a trapezoidal structure. The simultaneous outward expansion of the radicals on both sides opens up the central space of the character, providing limited vitality to the individual character and prompting the viewer to indulge in infinite imagination and evoke the ambiance. This is akin to the creation of framed scenery images in gardens (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Analysis of calligraphy rubbing and garden framing views.

Source: Photographed by the author.

Addressing the characteristics of spatial resonance and guidance in gardens and calligraphy through the concrete translation of an image language model. In Suzhou classical gardens, the art of garden-making values the interplay of curves and straight lines, embodying straightness within curves without adhering to specific formulaic methods, advocating for flexibility and variability. To meet this premise, the main spaces of the four models are not symmetrical, with the relationship between each spatial node and the central core being more flexible, and the connecting corridors also taking on a winding form. This approach aligns with the initial garden-making philosophy of “imitating nature”, paralleling the spatial arrangements in the last two columns of “Ji Zhi Wen Gao”. The plan layout draws from the flexible orientation treatment in gardens and the external expansion technique in calligraphy. Rotating the plan to a certain degree achieves interconnectedness among the spaces. The connection methods are inspired by Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts, employing tangible, intangible, and conceptual connections, represented by solid walls for tangible connections, arrays of colonnades for intangible connections, and two types of conceptual connections: one using bridges in gardens as prototypes, and the other relying on windows in the walls of individual nodes for visual linkage. The four groups of spaces use the tangible and intangible spatial nodes from gardens as plan prototypes, with each model incorporating two calligraphic stroke connections. Specifically, the top two models represent tangible and conceptual connections, and tangible and intangible connections, respectively, while the bottom two models combine all three techniques. In gardens, the landscaping methods are exhibited in the top two models where the left model’s two corridors create a space with a mix of solidity and void, with the arrayed colonnades forming a screened view between the waterscape and the viewer’s line of sight, while also framing the view; the right model’s central landscape is a reinterpretation of the juxtaposed space prototype in the Humble Administrator’s Garden, with modern design language translating Taihu rocks shapes replacing traditional moon gates for framing. The bottom left model’s central space wall employs a three-part window, with a large central window using framing and slender side windows borrowing scenery to complement the framed view; the right model’s prototype absorbs the entrance node of the Lingering Garden, leading through narrow, secluded corridors to an open central space, with square windows framing the external “garden scene” and guiding the viewer’s path forward. The external landscape created by the varying density of winding columns visually resonates with the tranquil space behind, expressing the overall spatial variations of “Emptiness-Substance” and “Denseness-Sparseness” (Figure 17).

Figure 17. Techniques of spatial correspondence and guidance in gardens and calligraphy.

Source: Drawn by the author.

4. Exploring the interconnectivity in cultural and philosophical perspectives

In traditional Chinese aesthetics, the concepts of “The Aesthetics of Emptiness”, “The Aesthetics of Distance”, and “The Aesthetics of Exteriority” form three profoundly influential aesthetic principles. These principles have not only guided the creation of various art forms such as classical gardens, painting, and calligraphy, but also deeply reflect artists’ understanding of nature and the universe as well as their philosophical contemplations.

The Aesthetics of Emptiness emphasizes the strategic use of negative space or voids to enhance the expressiveness and depth of artistic creations. This aesthetic principle is particularly prominent in the design of classical Suzhou gardens. These gardens are designed with meticulously planned spatial layouts that allow observers’ eyes and minds to wander through the emptiness, fostering rich layers of thought and emotional experience. For instance, in the Humble Administrator’s Garden, the lotus pond area uses large expanses of water contrasted with densely arranged trees and buildings to physically highlight the serenity and depth of the environment, thereby enhancing the layered and aesthetic quality of the visitor experience. Similarly, the rock and water layouts in the Lingering Garden and the Master of the Nets Garden, as well as the winding rock paths in the Lion Grove Garden, utilize negative space to strengthen the sense of visual and psychological distance. The Aesthetics of Distance advocates for the creation of visual and emotional separation, prompting observers to transcend the boundaries of daily life and experience a sense of spiritual freedom and relaxation. In Chinese landscape painting and garden landscape design, artists achieve this through deep scenic depths, strategic viewpoints, and meticulous layout planning, creating spaces that inspire infinite contemplation. For example, the design of the Master of the Nets Garden cleverly guides the viewer’s gaze along winding paths deep into the garden, using tiered rockeries and extended water features to create visual depth and expansion, facilitating a journey of the soul and profound contemplation. The Lingering Garden achieves a rich spatial layering and profound aesthetic experience through the undulating elevation of its buildings and the varied arrangement of its vegetation.

The Aesthetics of Exteriority emphasizes the exploration and expression of the relationship between humans and their natural and social environments. In Chinese calligraphy, this concept is reflected as artists use their works to convey observations, thoughts, and emotional experiences about the external world, demonstrating that calligraphy is not just an art of writing but also an expression of culture and spirit. For example, Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts not only showcase his exquisite calligraphic skills, particularly in the use of semi-cursive and cursive scripts, but also deeply convey his feelings about family, friendship, and social responsibility through the content and style of writing. “Ji Zhi Wen Gao” uses vigorous strokes to express grief over his nephew’s untimely death; “Zheng Zuo Wei Tie” displays his resilience and strength in the face of social injustice; and “Ji Bo Fu Gao” praises his uncle’s virtues, reflecting the traditional virtues of respecting the elderly and expressing emotions towards the external world.

Through an in-depth analysis of the three major aesthetic concepts known as the Aesthetics of Emptiness, the Aesthetics of Distance, and the Aesthetics of Exteriority, we gain not only an understanding of their specific applications in Chinese traditional arts but also how they guide artists to transcend material boundaries and access deeper spiritual and emotional realms. These principles offer valuable insights for contemporary artistic creation and cultural heritage, assisting artists and audiences in today’s rapidly changing society to reconnect with nature and history, and explore broader cultural and spiritual domains. In the context of Suzhou classical gardens, the techniques of creating spaces that utilize solid and void, as well as density and sparsity, reflect the multiple values of traditional Chinese aesthetics and philosophical thought. This application strengthens the logical and specific arguments presented in the discussion, demonstrating the enduring relevance and adaptability of these aesthetic concepts in both historical and modern contexts.

The segment first addresses the philosophy of Yin and Yang. This philosophy highlights the interdependent and contrasting relationships, manifesting as characteristics unified in opposition such as soft versus hard, open versus closed, and light versus dark. In landscape architecture, this concept is illustrated through the interplay of density in vegetation, solidity in structures, and variations in light and shadow. As described in the I Ching. (n.d), “Yin and Yang interact dynamically, their states ever-changing”. This complements the garden design ethos of strategic placement and the integration of motion and stillness, particularly exemplified by features such as the “Tai Chi Bridge”, which displays the dynamic equilibrium and transformative beauty of Yin and Yang through contrasts in its structure. Next, the text explores the integration with nature. Traditional Chinese texts, such as Zhuangzi (n.d.), offer profound insights into this concept with the principle “Tao follows nature”, advocating for a harmonious coexistence with the natural world. The Lingering Garden serves as an exemplary model of this integration, where the landscape’s topography and architectural arrangement enhance each other, resembling a three-dimensional landscape painting. Through meticulously arranged rocks, trees, and ponds, the garden embodies the ideals of “unity of nature and man” and “interfusion of self and the universe”. Furthermore, the pursuit of reclusion is emphasized, closely tied to traditional Chinese pictorial concepts. The design of Suzhou classical gardens reflects these concepts, creating artistic spaces rich in ambiance and emotion through the thoughtful arrangement of landscape elements such as reflections on water, bridges, and tranquil settings. These elements foster a sense of transcendence and seclusion, underscoring the significance of reclusive sentiment in Chinese culture. Lastly, the text discusses the multifaceted expression of aesthetic ideals. As mentioned in Zhuangzi (n.d.), the concept of “effortless action without inaction” highlights the beauty of non-intervention, aligning with the garden aesthetics of reclusion and the interplay of solidity and void. This aesthetic is demonstrated through spatial contrasts and arrangements, embodying the philosophy “the void contains the solid, the solid encapsulates the void”, and emphasizing a unified sense of beauty and spatial depth. Additionally, Confucius’s idea in the The Analects of Confucius, (n.d), “literature carries the Way, and virtue carries the substance”, reflects the traditional Chinese aesthetic that links beauty with moral and cultural values. Furthermore, insights from psychology suggest that spatial layouts significantly influence individual perception, emotional response, and behavioral patterns (Kaplan and Kaplan 1982). Environmental scientist Beatley (2000) emphasizes the critical interaction between humans and the natural environment, highlighting the necessity of incorporating ecological principles in spatial design. This interdisciplinary framework aids in uncovering the potential roles of spatial layout and connective techniques in enhancing human well-being and promoting sustainable social development, thereby providing theoretical support and innovative ideas for future spatial design. Through the detailed discussion of these concepts and cases, this paper underscores the logic and specificity with which the construction of space in Suzhou classical gardens reflects Chinese traditional aesthetics and philosophical thought. These designs not only exhibit garden aesthetics but also embody a profound understanding and pursuit of nature, life, and harmony, showcasing the ancient Chinese quest for beauty and their unique aesthetic ideals.

5. Conclusion

In exploring the interplay between Chinese calligraphy and Suzhou classical gardens, this paper conducts a thorough analysis of Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts and the spatial and aesthetic philosophies of the Suzhou classical gardens (Humble Administrator’s Garden, Lingering Garden, Master of Nets Garden, and Lion Grove Garden). This paper reveals their profound mutual influences and intrinsic connections. From the perspective of “Heterotopic Homology”, both calligraphic and garden arts in China exhibit remarkable consistency in spatial creation. Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts address the relationship between solidity and void not merely using ink and brush strength but also reflect his philosophical meditations on life, nature, and human emotions. This method is akin to the techniques used in Suzhou classical gardens, where contrasts of “Denseness-Sparseness” and “Emptiness-Substance” arrangements aim to provoke deep emotional responses and contemplation from the viewer. The spatial designs in these gardens, such as the arrangement of rockeries, the integration of water features, and the strategic placement of buildings, strive to create an atmosphere that is both tranquil and dynamically alive, similarly seeking to express the creator’s emotions through the variability of brush and ink in calligraphy. Through the comparative analysis of Yan Zhenqing’s Three Manuscripts and Suzhou classical gardens, it becomes evident that both calligraphic and garden arts are deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural and aesthetic principles. Every stroke in calligraphy pursues harmony with nature, which resonates with the garden design philosophy of “unity of man and nature” and “seeing the large in the small”. Moreover, both media exhibit profound cultural confidence and unique aesthetic pursuits, reflecting ancient Chinese scholars’ unique insights and philosophical considerations on nature and life. By highlighting these aspects, this paper strengthens the understanding of how the creation of space in Suzhou classical gardens not only showcases traditional Chinese aesthetics and philosophy but also encapsulates a deep comprehension and pursuit of nature, life, and harmony, showcasing the enduring charm and aesthetic values pursued by ancient Chinese literati.

From an interdisciplinary perspective, this paper introduces a novel approach and methodology through its analysis of the spatial correlations between gardens and calligraphy. This research offers significant insights for architects in the application of traditional Chinese spatial techniques within architectural design. Particularly in contemporary architectural projects, the adept manipulation of “denseness-sparseness” and “emptiness-substance” can result in modern structures that embody the characteristics of traditional Chinese aesthetics. By investigating the connections between Suzhou classical gardens and Chinese calligraphy, the study provides a deep dive into the historical development and evolutionary processes of traditional Chinese arts. This is crucial for art historians seeking to understand and interpret the trajectories of these arts, offering them substantial evidential support. Examining from a spatial perspective, this research explores ancient Chinese interpretations of nature, the humanities, and the interrelationships of time and space, thereby enriching our understanding of traditional Chinese philosophical concepts such as “the unity of nature and human” and “the intermingling of object and self”. It offers cultural researchers’ new insights into the deep-seated values within traditional Chinese culture from the viewpoints of other disciplines.

Future research could further explore the quantitative relationship between urban spatial design and environmental vitality, particularly within the context of historic layouts such as those found in Suzhou’s classical gardens. This would not only deepen our understanding of how spatial design influences urban vitality but also provide practical guidance for urban planning and sustainable development. Additionally, considering the impact of geographic heterogeneity on the quality of life, future studies should focus more on how increasing spatial diversity can enhance the living conditions of urban residents (Bose et al. 2023; Majumder et al. 2023). Moreover, emphasizing the role of environmental quality in sustainable urban development will continue to offer crucial insights for urban planners. The values and principles of traditional garden art remain relevant in modern urban environmental planning, especially in designs that emphasize the harmonious coexistence of nature and society. Through advanced technologies, such as GIS models and analyses of spatial heterogeneity, future research could delve deeper into how urban planning can effectively consider social vulnerabilities and improve living conditions (Roy et al. 2022, 2024), aiming to achieve more harmonious and sustainable urban development.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deep gratitude to Prof Cui Tong for guidance and encouragement, and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The project was funded by China State Construction Engineering Corporation (hereinafter “China State Construction” and “CSCEC”).

Notes on contributors

Zhenfu Song

Zhenfu Song is a Phd candidate at the School of Sciences for the Human Habitat, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. His main research areas are Architectural theory and traditional Chinese garden history.

He Jiang

He Jiang is a Phd candidate at the School of Sciences for the Human Habitat, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. He is an architect in China Construction Engineering Design & Research Institute Co. Ltd, Beijing, China. His main research fields are Architectural design and theory, green building technology and history of traditional Chinese gardens.

Tong Cui

Tong Cui is a chief architect in China Construction Engineering Design & Research Institute Co. Ltd, Beijing, China. He is a professor at the School of Sciences for the Human Habitat, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. His main research areas are Architectural design theory and architectural history.