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ABSTRACT
The historic town of Birgi is a historic settlement within İzmir, Turkey, included in the UNESCO Tentative List of World Heritage Sites in 2012. Traditional Birgi houses, dated to the second half of the 18th and the beginning of the 20th century, are one of the best-representative and best-preserved examples of the hımış houses – the most common housing typology of the Ottoman Period. These hybrid structures include a masonry ground floor and timber frame upper floors as their primary load-bearing systems, with details shaped in line with the regional material availability and the performance of these materials, as well as technical know-how and the local experience of major historic fires and earthquakes. In this study, authentic construction techniques used in the West Anatolian Ottoman houses and information about the construction processes are presented through Birgi's traditional houses. For this aim, a visual examination and documentation of various hımış sub-typologies representative of different construction periods are conducted. The differences in construction details are evaluated in light of the predominant architectural styles and technological possibilities of their construction periods. In addition, the strengths and weaknesses of authentic construction techniques and common construction errors are discussed.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Availability of data and materials
The data is available upon reasonable request.
Authors’ contributions
F.D.A. collected and processed all data. F.D.A. wrote the main manuscript text and prepared figures. N.Ş.G. and Y.D.A. reviewed and helped finalised the manuscript text. All authors reviewed the manuscript.
Notes
1 Machiel Kiel, ‘Birgi Tarihi ve Tarihi Coğrafyası’, in Birgi Tarihi, Tarihi Coğrafyası ve Türk Dönemi Anıtları, ed. Rahmi H. Ünal (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı, 2001), 3–54: 4-7.
2 Ibid., 9-19.
3 Ibid., 20.
4 Maurice M. Cerasi, Osmanlı Kenti: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda 18. ve 19. Yüzyıllarda Kent Uygarlığı ve Mimarisi, trans. Aslı Ataöv (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2001), 39.
5 Maurice M. Cerasi, ‘The formation of Ottoman house types: A comparative study in interaction with neighboring cultures’, Muqarnas 15 (1998): 116–56, doi: 10.2307/1523280.
6 Ayda Arel, Osmanlı Konut Geleneğinde Tarihsel Sorunlar (İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Yayınları, 1982) 34; Uğur Tanyeli, ‘Anadolu’da Bizans, Osmanlı Öncesi ve Osmanlı Dönemlerinde Yerleşme ve Barınma Düzeni’, in Tarihten Günümüze Anadolu’da Konut ve Yerleşme, ed. Yıldız Sey (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayınları, 1996), 463–66; Cerasi, Osmanlı Kenti: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda 18. ve 19. Yüzyıllarda Kent Uygarlığı ve Mimarisi, 24–25, 39; Nihal Yöney Uluengin, Osmanlı-Türk Sivil Mimarisinde Pencere Açıklıklarının Gelişimi, 2nd ed. (İstanbul: YEM Yayınları, 2000), 78.
7 Arel, Osmanlı Konut Geleneğinde Tarihsel Sorunlar; Mine Kazmaoğlu and Uğur Tanyeli, ‘Anadolu Konut Mimarisinde Bölgesel Farklılıklar’, Yapı 33 (1979): 29–41.
8 Sedad H. Eldem, Türk Evi Plan Tipleri (İstanbul: 1954, İTÜ Mimarlık Fakültesi), 11–12; Cerasi, The formation of Ottoman house types: A comparative study in interaction with neighboring cultures, 119–120.
9 Neriman Şahin Güçhan, ‘History and Characteristics of Construction Techniques Used in Traditional Timber Ottoman Houses’, International Journal of Architectural Heritage 12:1 (2018): 1–20. doi:10.1080/15583058.2017.1336811.
10 Sedad H. Eldem, Türk Evi: Osmanlı Dönemi I (İstanbul: 1984, TAÇ Vakfı), 62.
11 Nicolas N. Ambraseys and Caroline F. Finkel, Türkiye’de ve Komşu Bölgelerde Sismik Etkinlikler-Bir Tarihsel İnceleme 1500-1800, trans. M. Umur Koçak (Ankara: TÜBİTAK Yayınları, 2006).
12 Serdar Vardar, eds., Küçük Menderes Havzası’nın Yeryüzü Şekilleri ile Yerleşim Özellikleri Arasındaki İlişkiler Üzerine Değerlendirmeler-Küçük Menderes Araştırmaları (İstanbul: 2017, ÇEKÜL Vakfı).
13 Filiz Diri Akyıldız and Neriman Şahin Güçhan, Birgi Yerleşim ve Koruma Tarihi, in Topluma Adanmış Bir Yaşam-Prof. Dr. Ömür Bakırer Armağanı, ed. Ali Uzay Peker and Neriman Şahin Güçhan (Ankara: 2021, ODTÜ Yayınları): 83–107, 86–87.
14 Kemal A. Aru, Orhan Safa and Celile Berk, ‘Ödemiş Şehri İmar Planı Proje Müsabakası Sonucu’ [Ödemiş Master Plan Competition Jury Report], Mimarlık Dergisi 6 (1944), 18–22. The team of Kemal Ahmet Aru, Orhan Safa and Celile Berk won the Ödemiş Master Plan Competition held in 1944, with Şefik Refik Soyer, H. Prost, Recai Akçay, Muammer Çavuşoğlu, Niyazi Erzin, Şekip Akalın, Mithat Yenen, Mutahhar Başoğlu, Paul Bonatz, Ernst Reuter and Gustav Oelsner as the jury. In their report, the jury clearly stated that they thought Birgi, which was of great importance for Ödemiş, was ignored. In line with this report, Aru, Safa and Berk prepared a master plan for Birgi in addition to the master plan for Ödemiş.
15 Filiz Diri, ‘Construction Techniques of Traditional Birgi Houses’ (master’s thesis, Middle East Technical University, 2010), http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12612632/index.pdf. The main source of this paper is the Master's thesis completed in 2010 by Filiz Diri Akyıldız under the advisory of Neriman Şahin Güçhan. This thesis focused only on identifying authentic construction techniques used in Birgi houses. In this paper, on the other hand, the obtained data are analysed with the construction processes, the changes and environmental factors.
16 Arel, Osmanlı Konut Geleneğinde Tarihsel Sorunlar, 34-49.
17 Eldem, Türk Evi: Osmanlı Dönemi I, 16.
18 Arel, Osmanlı Konut Geleneğinde Tarihsel Sorunlar, 34.
19 Erdem Aksoy, ‘Orta Mekan: Türk Sivil Mimarisinde Kuruluş Prensibi’, Mimarlık ve Sanat 7/8 (1963), 39–92; Doğan Kuban, ‘Türkiye’de Malzeme Koşullarına Bağlı Geleneksel Konut Mimarisi Üzerine Bazı Gözlemler’, Mimarlık 36 (1966): 15–20; Eldem, Türk Evi: Osmanlı Dönemi I.
20 Randolph Langenbach, From “Opus Craticium” to the “Chicago Frame”: Earthquake-Resistant Traditional Construction’, International Journal of Architectural Heritage 1/1 (2007): 29–59, doi: 10.1080/15583050601125998; Neriman Şahin Güçhan, ‘Observations on Earthquake Resistance of Traditional Timber Framed Houses in Turkey’, Building and Environment 42/2 (2007): 840–851, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.09.027.
21 Yasemin D. Aktaş et al., ‘Traditional Structures in Turkey and Greece in 30 October 2020 Aegean Sea Earthquake: Field Observations and Empirical Fragility Assessment’, Frontiers in Built Environment 8/66 (2022): 4–5, 8–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2022.840159; Yasemin D. Aktaş and Ahmet Türer, ‘Seismic performance evaluation of traditional timber Hımış frames: capacity spectrum method based assessment’, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering 14/11 (2016): 3175-3194, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-016-9943-2; Yasemin D. Aktaş, ‘Investigation of the Seismic Resistance of Traditional Timber Frame Structures’ (Ph.D. thesis, METU Faculty of Architecture, 2011); Yasemin D. Aktaş et al., ‘Seismic Resistance Evaluation of Traditional Ottoman Timber-Frame Hımış Houses: Frame Loadings and Material Tests’, Earthquake Spectra 30/4 (2014): 1711–32, https://doi.org/10.1193/011412eqs011m.
22 Şahin Güçhan, ‘Observations on Earthquake Resistance of Traditional Timber Framed Houses in Turkey’: 840–851; Aktaş et al., ‘Seismic Resistance Evaluation of Traditional Ottoman Timber-Frame Hımış Houses: Frame Loadings and Material Tests’.
23 Aktaş, Investigation of the Seismic Resistance of Traditional Timber Frame Structures.
24 Şahin Güçhan, ‘Observations on Earthquake Resistance of Traditional Timber Framed Houses in Turkey’.
25 Uğur Tanyeli, İstanbul 1900–2000 Konutu ve Modernleşmeyi Metropolden Okumak (İstanbul: Akın Nalça Kitapları, 2004).
26 Ahmed Refik, Onuncu Asr-I Hicri’de İstanbul Hayatı 1495–1591 (İstanbul: Enderun Kitabevi, 1988); Ahmed Refik, Onikinci Asr-I Hicri’de İstanbul Hayatı 1689–1785 (İstanbul: Enderun Kitabevi, 1988); DİA, ‘İstanbul – II. Sanat’, in Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi 23 (2001), 243–67, https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/istanbul#5.
27 Ahmed Refik, Onuncu Asr-I Hicri’de İstanbul Hayatı 1495-1591, 58–60; Ahmed Refik, Onikinci Asr-I Hicri’de İstanbul Hayatı 1689-1785, 21, 35-36, 66, 83.
28 Sadiye Tutsak and Biray Çakmak, ‘II. Abdülhamit Dönemi’nde Konut İnşasında Bürokratik Süreç ve Uşak’ta Konut Kültürü’, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi 21 (2014), 198–202.
29 Ramazan Demirtaş et al., Ödemiş-Beydağ-Kiraz (İzmir) Jeotermal Ruhsat Alanları Jeolojik Etüt Raporu (Ankara: Batı Anadolu Jeotermal A.Ş, 2013).
30 Zehra Ekinci, Anadolu Türk Evi Geleneğinde Birgi Örneği ve Sandıkoğlu Konağı - Bir Konağın Kurgusu (İstanbul: YEM Yayınları, 2005), 16.
31 Kemal A. Aru, Orhan Safa and Celile Berk, ‘Ödemiş-Birgi Development Eligibility Status Report and Report for Local Commissionaire of Public Works Including Information Serving as Basis for Future Master Plan’, (unpublished report accessed from General Directorate of Mapping Archive of Turkey, 1945); Ülkü Altınoluk, Geleneksel Kent Dokusu Birgi (İstanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2007), 172; Aru, Safa and Berk found out kiln sources near the settlement, and in the early 2000’s, Altınoluk confirmed that sources.
32 Ekinci, Anadolu Türk Evi Geleneğinde Birgi Örneği ve Sandıkoğlu Konağı - Bir Konağın Kurgusu, 16.
33 Demirtaş et al., Ödemiş-Beydağ-Kiraz (İzmir) Jeotermal Ruhsat Alanları Jeolojik Etüt Raporu.
34 Serdar Vardar, ÇEKÜL Küçük Menderes Havzası Koruma Çalışmaları- Küçük Menderes Havzası Coğrafi Veri Projesi-Birgi (2007), http://kucukmenderesproje.tr.gg/BiRGi.htm (accessed March 26, 2022).
35 Eleftheria Tsakanika, ‘The constructional analysis of timber load bearing systems as a tool for interpreting Aegean Bronze Age architecture’, Proceedings of the Symposium - Bronze Age Architectural traditions in Easter Mediterranean: Diffusion and Diversity at 07–08 May 2008 (Munich, 2009): 127–142, 129; Robin Spence, Andrew Coburn, ‘Strengthening buildings of stone masonry to resist earthquakes’, Meccanica 27 (1992): 213–221, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00430046.
36 Uluengin, Osmanlı-Türk Sivil Mimarisinde Pencere Açıklıklarının Gelişimi, 70–71, 204–205.
37 Coeck van Aelst, P. 1873. The Turks in MDXXXIII: A Series of Drawings Made in That Year at Constantinople. (S. S. Bart, Trans.) London & Edinburg: Privately Printed.
38 Ahmed Refik, Onuncu Asr-I Hicri’de İstanbul Hayatı 1495-1591; Ahmed Refik, Onikinci Asr-I Hicri’de İstanbul Hayatı 1689-1785; DİA, İstanbul – II. Sanat, 243–267.
39 Nicola Ruggieri, ‘La casa antisismica’, Proceedings of the International Conference of Conservation of Historic Wooden Structures, Gennaro Tampone ed. Vol (1) (Florence, 2005): 141–146.
40 Ahmed Refik, Onuncu Asr-I Hicri’de İstanbul Hayatı 1495-1591, 58–60; Ahmed Refik, Onikinci Asr-I Hicri’de İstanbul Hayatı 1689-1785, 66.
41 Diri Akyıldız and Şahin Güçhan, Birgi Yerleşim ve Koruma Tarihi, 95–102.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Filiz Diri Akyıldız
Filiz Diri Akyıldız B.Arch., M.Arch., PhD. Completed her bachelor's degree (2006) in architecture in Gazi University. Received her MSc. (2010 in Middle East Technical University and earned her PhD. (2018) degree in Conservation of Cultural Heritage from METU. Currently works as Lecturer at METU, and she is a postdoctoral research fellow at University College London.
Neriman Şahin Güçhan
Neriman Şahin Güçhan B.Arch., M.Arch., PhD. Received her B.Arch. (1983) from Middle East Technical University and her M.Arch. (1986) from the same university. Earned her PhD. (1995) degree in architectural conservation from METU. Her areas of interest and research topics include preservation and rehabilitation of historic sites, conservation of timber framed historic houses, and historic structural systems.
Yasemin Didem Aktaş
Yasemin Didem Aktaş B.Sc., M.Sc., PhD. Completed her bachelor's degree (2003) in Civil Engineering (Structures) and her MSc (2006) in Archaeometry in Middle East Technical University. Earned her PhD. (2011) degree in Conservation of Cultural Heritage from METU. Currently works as Associate Professor of the Department of Civil, Environmental & Geomatic Engineering at University College London.