The implications and effects of ChatGPT on academic scholarship and authorship: a death knell for original academic publications?

ABSTRACT

ChatGPT, an artificial intelligence large language model, took the world by storm in November 2022. Its launch was met with excitement, and it garnered over 1 million users within the first five days of its release, surpassing social media giants like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and even the top search engine, Google. Having been trained on volumes of data, ChatGPT has displayed the ability to produce human-like responses to questions. Concerns have been raised among members of the academic and research community regarding the ethical usage of ChatGPT and language models in education and academic/scientific research. This paper examines the development and rise of ChatGPT and similar AI tools, their pros and cons, their impact on academic research and possible intellectual property conflicts. It concludes that ChatGPT and language models are here to stay and makes recommendations for its ethical usage to prevent and detect plagiarism and protect intellectual property rights.

KEYWORDS:

• Chatgpt
• artificial intelligence
• academic research
• intellectual property rights
• large language models
• education‌

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Adil E Shamoo and David B Resnik,. Responsible Conduct of Research (2nd edn Oxford University Press, 2009) 34.

2 Mary Ellen Grasso, ‘English the Research Paper: Life Centered’ (1978) 40(83) College English <https://doi.org/10.2307/376178> accessed 3 February 2023.

3 Imad A Moosa, Publish or Perish Perceived Benefits Versus Unintended Consequences (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018) 3.

4 ibid.

5 Robert W. Taylor, Eric J. Fritsch and John Liederbach, Digital Crime and Digital Terrorism (3rd edn Pearson Inc. 2015) 1

6 Nilamadhab Kar, ‘Ethics In Research’ (2011) The Odisha Journal of Psychiatry <https://www.researchgate.net/profile/NilamadhabKar/publication/224894197_Ethics_in_research/links/09e414fa422c458aa2000000/Ethics-in-research.pdf?origin=publicationDetail> accessed 14 March 2023.

7 Shamoo (n 1) 5.

8 Michael Liebrenz and others, ‘Generating Scholarly Content with ChatGPT: Ethical Challenges for Medical Publishing’ (2023) < https://doi.org/10.1016/S2589-7500(23)00019-5> accessed 20 February 2023.

9 OpenAI, ‘ChatGPT: Optimizing Language Models for Dialogue’ (30 November 2022) OpenAI <https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt/> accessed 3 February 2023.

10 Steve Mollman, ‘ChatGPT Gained 1 Million Users in Under a Week. Here’s Why the AI Chatbot is Primed to Disrupt Search as We Know It’ (9 December 2022) Yahoo! Finance <https://finance.yahoo.com/news/chatgpt-gained-1-million-followers-224523258.html> accessed 3 February 2023. Also, Johan Moreno, ‘OpenAI Positioned Itself as the AI Leader in 2022. But Could Google Supersede It in ‘23?’ (29 December 2022) Forbes <https://www.forbes.com/sites/johanmoreno/2022/12/29/openai-positioned-itself-as-the-ai--leader-in-2022-but-could-google-supersede-it-in-23/> accessed 3 February 2023.

11 ChatGPT was created using the improved GPT-3.5 version of GPT-3.

12 AM Turing, ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’ (1950) 59(236) Mind 433. <https://phil415.pbworks.com/f/TuringComputing.pdf> accessed 03 February 2023. This origin has been attributed to Turing’s seminal work which introduced what is now known as the Turing test. Though the phrase ‘Artificial Intelligence’ was not used then, it is the origin of AI as we know it today.

13 Ida Arlene Joiner, ‘Artificial Intelligence: AI is Nearby’ (2018) Emerging Library Technologies 1 at 2. <https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102253-5.00002-2> accessed 6 February 2023.

14 ibid.

15 John McCarthy, ‘What is Artificial Intelligence?’ (1997) Stanford University <https://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai.pdf> accessed 6 February 2023.

16 Andreas Kaplan, ‘Social Media Powered by Artificial Intelligence, Violence and Nonviolence’ in Lester R Kurtz (ed), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict (3rd edn Academic Press, 2022) 253 at 254–6. <https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820195-4.00033-9> accessed 6 February 2023.

17 BJ Copeland, ‘Artificial Intelligence’, Britannica <https://www.britannica.com/technology/artificial-intelligence> accessed 6 February 2023.

18 Hudaiba Soomro, ‘Dissecting ChatGPT – Is This New AI Tool a Game Changer?’ (2022) Data Science Dojo <https://datasciencedojo.com/blog/dissecting-chatgpt/> accessed 6 February 2023.

19 Brian Gleeson, ‘Microsoft's ChatGPT Investment Could Create 'Game-Changer' AI Search Engine’ Yahoo Finance (11 January 2023) <https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/news/microsoft-chatgpt-investment-ai-search-engine-160455154.html> accessed 6 February 2023.

20 Cade Metz and Nico Grant, ‘A New Chat Bot Is a 'Code Red' for Google's Search Business’ The New York Times (21 December 2022) <https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/technology/ai-chatgpt-google-search.html> accessed 6 February 2023.

21 Shubham Agarwal, ‘Search Engines and AI Will Make Each Other Better: The Tech in ChatGPT Can’t Kill Google. Instead, They’ll Join Forces” Freethink (2022) <https://www.freethink.com/robots-ai/chatgpt-search-engines> accessed 6 February 2023.

22 Sabyasachi Karmaker, ‘ChatGPT: Here to Replace the Writers and Coders?’ The Business Standard (24 December 2022) <https://www.tbsnews.net/tech/chatgpt-here-replace-writers-and-coders-556934> accessed 6 February 2023.

23 Sean McMinn, ‘ChatGPT Killed the Classroom Star: AI’s Rise Means It’s Time to Rethink Teaching and Testing’ South China Morning Post (15 January 2023) <https://www.scmp.com/comment/opinion/article/3206436/chatgpt-killed-classroom-star-ais-rise-means-its-time-rethink-teaching-and-testing> accessed 6 February 2023. Also, Jeffrey R Young, ‘AI Tools Like ChatGPT May Reshape Teaching Materials – And Possibly Substitute Teach’ (19 January 2023) <https://www.edsurge.com/news/2023-01-19-ai-tools-like-chatgpt-may-reshape-teaching-materials-and-possibly-substitute-teach> accessed 6 February 2023. Also, Suresh Prabhu and Shobhit Mathur, ‘ChatGPT: Can Artificial Intelligence Really Replace Teachers?’ The Economic Times (16 December 2022) <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/opinion/et-commentary/chatgpt-can-artificial-intelligence-really-replace-teachers/articleshow/96286743.cms> accessed 6 February 2023.

24 Amongst other professions.

25 Oleg Kopachovets, ‘What Are GPT-3 Chatbots, and How to Profit Implementing It For Your Project’ (2023) < https://procoders.tech/blog/what-is-gpt-3-chatbot/#:~:text=A%20chat%20with%20GPT%2D3,can%20find%20for%20business%20use.> accessed 12 February 2023.

26 Katie Metzler, and ChatGPT, ‘How ChatGPT Could Transform Higher Education’ (2022) Social Science Space <https://www.socialsciencespace.com/2022/12/how-chatgpt-could-transform-higher-education/> accessed 12 February 2023.

27 Josh Bersin, ‘Understanding Chat-GPT, And Why It’s Even Bigger Than You Think’ (2023) <https://joshbersin.com/2023/01/understanding-chat-gpt-and-why-its-even-bigger-than-you-think/> accessed 13 February 2023.

28 The GPT model on which ChatGPT is based.

29 Tom Brown and others ‘Language Models Are Few-Shot Learners’ (2020) 8 at 40. <https://arxiv.org/pdf/2005.14165.pdf> accessed 13 February 2023.

30 Bersin (n 27).

31 ibid.

32 Catherine A Gao and others, ‘Comparing Scientific Abstracts Generated by ChatGPT to Original Abstracts Using an Artificial Intelligence Output Detector, Plagiarism Detector, and Blinded Human Reviewers’ (2022) bioRxiv <https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.12.23.521610> accessed 14 February 2023. Also, Holly Else, ‘Abstracts Written by ChatGPT Fool Scientists’ Nature (12 January 2023) <https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00056-7#ref-CR1> accessed 14 February 2023.

33 Alex Hern, ‘AI Bot ChatGPT Stuns Academics with Essay-writing Skills and Usability’ The Guardian (4 December 2022) <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/dec/04/ai-bot-chatgpt-stuns-academics-with-essay-writing-skills-and-usability> accessed 14 February 2023.

34 Brian Frederick, ‘Will ChatGPT Take Your Job?’ Search Engine Journal (2023) <https://www.searchenginejournal.com/will-chatgpt-take-your-job/476189/> accessed 15 February 2023.

35 OpenAI, ‘ChatGPT: Limitations’ (2022) <https://chat.openai.com/chat> accessed 14 February 2023.

36 Ian Bogost, ‘ChatGPT Is Dumber Than You Think’ (2022) The Atlantic <https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2022/12/chatgpt-openai-artificial-intelligence-writing-ethics/672386/> accessed 15 February 2023. Also, Jeegar Dattani, ‘Can ChatGPT Write Health and Medical Content?’ Medical Dialogues (2023) <https://medicaldialogues.in/articles/can-chatgpt-write-health-and-medical-content-106367> accessed 15 February 2023.

37 Sophia Yang, ‘The Abilities and Limitations of ChatGPT’ Anaconda (2022) <https://www.anaconda.com/blog/the-abilities-and-limitations-of-chatgpt> accessed 15 February 2023. Also, Garling Wu, ‘5 Big Problems With OpenAI's ChatGPT’ MUO (2022) <https://www.makeuseof.com/openai-chatgpt-biggest-probelms/> accessed 15 February 2023.

38 Amanda Kirby, ‘Chat-GPT – Is This an Alert for Changes in the Way We Deliver Education?’ Fe News (18 January 2023) <https://www.fenews.co.uk/exclusive/chat-gpt-is-this-an-alert-for-changes-in-the-way-we-deliver-education/> accessed 15 February 2023.

39 E.g. when paying for an item or services electronically, making a booking, in transportation, in the health and medical sector, etc.

40 Emmanuel Chinonso Opara, ‘ChatGPT for Teaching, Learning and Research: Prospects and Challenges’ (2013) ResearchGate, 15–16 <researchgate.net/publication/366808899_CHATGPT_FOR_TEACHING_LEARNING_AND_RESEARCH_PROSPECTS_AND_CHALLENGES> accessed 15 February 2023.

41 Else (n 32).

42 Chris Westfall, ‘Educators Battle Plagiarism As 89% Of Students Admit To Using OpenAI’s ChatGPT For Homework’ Forbes (28 January 2023) <https://www.forbes.com/sites/chriswestfall/2023/01/28/educators-battle-plagiarism-as-89-of-students-admit-to-using-open-ais-chatgpt-for-homework/?sh=53a688fe750d> accessed 7 February 2023.

43 Aldo Alvarez-Risco and Shyla Del-Aguila-Arcentales, ‘A Note on Changing Regulation in International Business: The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and Artificial Intelligence’ in Alain Verbeke, Rob van Tulder, R., Elizabeth L Rose and Yingqi Wei (eds), The Multiple Dimensions of Institutional Complexity in International Business Research (Progress in International Business Research, Vol. 15, Emerald Publishing, 2021) 363–71 <https://doi.org/10.1108/S1745-886220210000015020> accessed 20 February 2023.

44 Each Jurisdiction across the globe has in place a legal framework for the protection of copyright on literary work within its territory.

45 17 U.S. Code § 201 – Ownership of copyright.

46 Ivan Neil Gomez, ‘Should ChatGPT be Considered an Author in Scholarly Publications?’ (February 2023) ResearchGate <10.36413/pjahs.0602.001> accessed 19 February 2023.

47 Jane C Ginsburg and Luke Ali Budiardjo, ‘Authors and Machines’ <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3233885> accessed 19 March 2023.

48 ibid 453.

49 ibid.

50 Ian Sample, ‘Science Journals Ban Listing of ChatGPT as Co-author on Papers’ The Guardian (26 January 2023) <https://amp.theguardian.com/science/2023/jan/26/science-journals-ban-listing-of-chatgpt-as-co-author-on-papers> accessed 20 February 2023.

51 OpenAI, ‘ChatGPT’ (2022) <https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt/> accessed 20 February 2023.

52 OpenAI, ‘Terms of Use’ (14 March 2023) <https://openai.com/policies/terms-of-use> accessed 25 March 2023.

53 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. < https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/48/contents> accessed 25 June 2023.

54 UK Patents Act 1977 <https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1977/37/section/7> accessed 23 March 2023.

55 University of Southampton’s Applications [2005] RPC 220, 234.

56 Trade-Mark Cases, 100 U.S. 82, 94 (1879).

57 United States Copyright Office, Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices (3rd edn United States Copyright Office, 2021) 7.

58 Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v Sarony, 111 U.S. 53, 58 (1884).

59 European Commission IP Helpdesk, ‘Intellectual Property in ChatGPT’ (23 February 2023) <https://intellectual-property-helpdesk.ec.europa.eu/news-events/news/intellectual-property-chatgpt-2023-02-20_en> accessed 23 March 2023.

60 ibid.

61 Jed Tan Yeong Tat, ‘Risks and Issues in Using AI Chatbot, Chat GPT’ Perspectives (1 March 2023) <https://rajadarrylloh.com/risks-and-issues-in-using-ai-chatbot-chat-gpt/> accessed 23 March 2023.

62 Daniel Healow, Sarah Shaedler, and Taylor Sullivan, ‘Key Steps to Protect Your Intellectual Property and Reduce Risk if Your Employees are Using Artificial Intelligence Chatbots’ Orrick (18 January 2023) <https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/key-steps-to-protect-your-intellectual-2135907/> accessed 23 March 2023. Also, Nathan-Ross Adams, ‘ChatGPT: Legal Issues with the World’s Latest Augmented AI’ (09 December 2022) <https://www.michalsons.com/blog/chatgpt-legal-issues-with-the-worlds-latest-augmented-ai/62520> accessed 23 March 2023.

63 Michael James Bommarito and Daniel Martin Katz, ‘GPT Takes the Bar Exam’ (December 29, 2022). Available at SSRN: <https://ssrn.com/abstract=4314839> accessed 20 February 2023.

64 ibid 13.

65 Boniphace Kutela and others, ‘ChatGPT's Scientific Writings: A Case Study on Traffic Safety’ (2023) <https://ssrn.com/abstract=4329120> accessed 18 February 2023.

66 Healow (n 62).

67 ibid.

68 Hern (n 33).

69 ibid.

70 Jonathan H Choi and others, ‘ChatGPT Goes To Law School’ (2023) Minnesota Legal Studies Research Paper No. 23-03, 1–5 <https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4335905> accessed 7 February 2023.

71 ibid 5.

72 ibid 8.

73 ibid.

74 This was despite it performing mediocrely at the bottom of each class.

75 Choi (n 70) 11.

76 Christian Terwiesch, ‘Would Chat GPT Get a Wharton MBA? A Prediction Based on Its Performance in the Operations Management Course’ (2023) Mack Institute for Innovation Management at the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. <https://mackinstitute.wharton.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Christian-Terwiesch-Chat-GTP-1.24.pdf> accessed 16 February 2023.

77 Tiffany H Kung and others, ‘Performance of ChatGPT on USMLE: Potential for AI-Assisted Medical Education Using Large Language Models’ (2022) medRxiv, 5. <https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.12.19.22283643> accessed 16 February 2023.

78 ibid 3.

79 Kaveh Bakhtiyari and others, ‘Ethical and Unethical Method of Plagiarism Prevention in Academic Writing’ (2014) 7(7) International Education Studies 53.

80 ibid.

81 ibid.

82 ibid.

83 Junaid Qadir, ‘Engineering Education in the Era of ChatGPT: Promise and Pitfalls of Generative AI for Education’ (2022) 1 <https://doi.org/10.36227/TECHRXIV.21789434.V1> accessed 16 February 2023.

84 Oleg Litvinski, ‘Emerging Technology: Toward a Conceptual Definition’ (2012) 9(6) International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance 258.

85 OpenAI (n 51).

86 Michael Elsen-Rooney, ‘NYC Education Department Blocks ChatGPT on School Devices, Networks’ Chalkbeat New York (2023) <https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2023/1/3/23537987/nyc-schools-ban-chatgpt-writing-artificial-intelligence> accessed 16 February 2023.

87 Taylor Soper, ‘Seattle Public Schools Bans ChatGPT; District ‘Requires Original Thought and Work From Students’ GeekWire (16 January 2023) <https://www.geekwire.com/2023/seattle-public-schools-bans-chatgpt-district-requires-original-thought-and-work-from-students/> accessed 16 February 2023.

88 Dan Rosenzweig-Ziff, ‘New York City Blocks Use of the ChatGPT Bot in Its Schools’ The Washington Post (5 January 2023) <https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/01/05/nyc-schools-ban-chatgpt/> accessed 16 February 2023.

89 Reuters, ‘Top French University Bans Use of ChatGPT to Prevent Plagiarism’ Reuters (27 January 2023) <https://www.reuters.com/technology/top-french-university-bans-use-chatgpt-prevent-plagiarism-2023-01-27/> accessed 16 February 2023. Also, L. Bonaventure, ‘Top French University Bans Students From Using ChatGPT’ rfi (27 January 2023) <https://www.rfi.fr/en/business-and-tech/20230127-top-french-university-bans-students-from-using-chatgpt> accessed 16 February 2023.

90 Arianna Johnson, ‘ChatGPT In Schools: Here’s Where It’s Banned – And How It Could Potentially Help Students’ Forbes (31 January 2023) <https://www.forbes.com/sites/ariannajohnson/2023/01/18/chatgpt-in-schools-heres-where-its-banned-and-how-it-could-potentially-help-students/?sh=738c820f6e2c> accessed 16 February 2023.

91 Else (n 32).

92 ibid.

93 Gao (n 32).

94 ibid.

95 And this was despite the fact that the reviewers knew that some of the abstracts given to them were AI generated. It would make the tasks of reviewers even harder where they are reviewing random submissions from human researchers and have no inkling whether any of those submissions have actually been generated by AI.

96 Michael Fire and ChatGPT, ‘The Rise of ChatGPT and its Upcoming Impact on the Academic Publishing Industry’ ResearchGate (2023) 1. <http://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.13575.68001> accessed 19 February 2023.

97 Michael Dowling and Brian Lucey, ‘ChatGPT for (Finance) Research: The Bananarama Conjecture’ Finance Research Letters (2023) <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2023.103662> accessed 19 February 2023.

98 Stephen Turban, ‘How Will ChatGPT Change Research Paper Writing?’ Lumiere Education (2022) <https://www.lumiere-education.com/post/how-will-chatgpt-change-research-paper-writing> accessed 19 February 2023.

99 Naveen Manohar and Shruthi S Prasad, ‘Use of ChatGPT in Academic Publishing: A Rare Case of Seronegative Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in a Patient With HIV Infection’ (2003) 15(2) Cureus <https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.34616> accessed 19 February 2023.

100 ibid.

101 ibid.

102 Choi (n 70) 14.

103 Amy Cyphert, ‘A Human Being Wrote This Law Review Article: GPT-3 and the Practice of Law’ (2021) 55(1) UC Davis Law Review WVU College of Law Research Paper No. 2022-02, 404. <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3973961> accessed 19 February 2023. Also, Govind Chandrasekhar, ‘The GIGO Principle in Machine Learning’ (2017) <https://medium.com/datascience-semantics3/thoughts-on-the-gigo-principle-in-machine-learning-4fbd3af43dc4> accessed 19 February 2023.

104 Gao (n 32).

105 OpenAI, ‘ChatGPT’ (2022) <https://chat.openai.com/chat> accessed 19 February 2023.

106 Liebrenz (n 8).

107 Nature, ‘Tools Such as ChatGPT Threaten Transparent Science; Here Are Our Ground Rules for Their Use’ (18 January 2023) Nature Editorial <https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-00191-1> accessed 19 February 2023.

108 Sample (n 50).

109 H Holden Thorp, ‘ChatGPT is Fun, But Not an Author’ Science (26 January 2023) <https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adg7879> accessed 19 February 2023.

110 Nature (n 107).

111 James Vincent, ‘Top AI Conference Bans Use of ChatGPT and AI Language Tools to Write Academic Papers’ The Verge (6 January 2023) <https://www.theverge.com/2023/1/5/23540291/chatgpt-ai-writing-tool-banned-writing-academic-icml-paper> accessed 28 February 2023.

112 ICML 2023, ‘ICML 2023 Call for Papers’ (2023) <https://icml.cc/Conferences/2023/CallForPapers> accessed 28 February 2023. The ICML subsequently came out with a clarification and what could be termed as a modification of its earlier stance which was of total prohibition. ICML 2023, ’Clarification on Large Language Model Policy LLM’ (2023) <https://icml.cc/Conferences/2023/llm-policy> accessed 28 February 2023.

113 Emma Bowman, ‘A New AI Chatbot Might Do Your Homework for You. But It’s Still Not an A+ Student’ NPR Technology (December 19, 2022) <https://www.npr.org/2022/12/19/1143912956/chatgpt-ai-chatbot-homework-academia> accessed 18 February 2023.

114 Qadir (n 83).

115 Chris Stokel-Walker, ‘ChatGPT Listed as Author on Research Papers: Many Scientists Disapprove’ Nature (18 January 2023) <https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00107-z> accessed 20 February 2023.

116 Maureen Dowd, ‘ChatGPT Opens a Pandora’s Box of Existential Fears’ The Irish Times (29 January 2023) <https://www.irishtimes.com/world/2023/01/29/maureen-dowd-chatgpt-opens-a-pandoras-box-of-existential-fears/> accessed 19 February 2023. Also, Nick Baily, ‘Pandora’s Box is Open: ChatGPT’s Forceful Integration into Academia’ The Sewanee Purple (2 February 2023) <https://thesewaneepurple.org/2023/02/02/pandoras-box-is-open-chatgpts-forceful-integration-into-academia/> accessed 28 February 2023.

117 Sunil Manghani, ‘WebChatGPT – Genie is Out of the Bottle!’ Medium (10 January 2023) <https://medium.com/electronic-life/webchatgpt-genie-is-out-of-the-bottle-b1f6e26f1337> accessed 28 February 2023.

118 Professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California.

119 Iqbal Pittalwala, ‘Is ChatGPT a threat to education? – UC Riverside Experts Share Thoughts on the AI-Powered Language Model that Understands and Responds to Natural Language’UC Riverside News (24 January 2023) <https://news.ucr.edu/articles/2023/01/24/chatgpt-threat-education> accessed 28 February 2023.

120 Professor of biology at the University of California.

121 Pittalwala (n 119).

122 Professor of teaching in economics at the University of California.

123 Pittalwala (n 119).

124 Assistant Professor of computer science and engineering at the University of California.

125 Pittalwala (n 119).

126 Kevin Roose, ‘Don’t Ban ChatGPT in Schools. Teach With It’ The New York Times (12 January 2023) <https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/12/technology/chatgpt-schools-teachers.html> accessed 28 February 2023.

127 Benjamin Marchandot and others, ‘ChatGPT: The Next Frontier in Academic Writing for Cardiologists or a Pandora's Box of Ethical 1 Dilemmas’ (2023) oead007 European Heart Journal Open 3. <https://doi.org/10.1093/ehjopen/oead007> accessed 28 February 2023.

128 Audrey Watters, ‘A Brief History of Calculators in the Classroom’Hack Education (12 March 2015) <http://hackeducation.com/2015/03/12/calculators> accessed 28 February 2023. Also, Kendall Lloyd, ‘Calculators in the High School Classroom: Anxiety Levels and Attitudes Towards Mathematics’ (2020) Senior Independent Study Theses. Paper 9043. <https://openworks.wooster.edu/independentstudy/9043> accessed 28 February 2023.

129 Funmi Looi Somoye, ‘GPT-4 release date prediction: When is the new model?’ PC Guide (2023) <https://www.pcguide.com/apps/chat-gpt-4-release-date/> accessed 28 February 2023.

130 ICML 2023, ‘Clarification on Large Language Model Policy LLM’ (2023) <https://icml.cc/Conferences/2023/llm-policy> accessed 28 February 2023.

131 ibid.

132 Gao (n 32).

133 ibid.

134 ibid.

135 Laura Meckler and Pranshu Verma, ‘Teachers are on alert for inevitable cheating after release of ChatGPT’ The Washington Post (28 December 2022) <https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/12/28/chatbot-cheating-ai-chatbotgpt-teachers/> accessed 11 March 2023.

136 S. Siddharth Sharma, “The AI Arms Race’ Medium (2 February 2023) <https://medium.com/@siddrrsh/the-ai-arms-race-9c9a3268266d> accessed 11 March 2023.

137 Melissa Heikkila, ‘A Watermark for Chatbots Can Expose Text Written by an AI’MIT Technology Review (27 January 2023) <https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/01/27/1067338/a-watermark-for-chatbots-can-spot-text-written-by-an-ai/> accessed 11 March 2023.

138 John Kirchenbauer and others, ‘A Watermark for Large Language Models’ (2023) Arxiv <https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2301.10226> accessed 11 March 2023.

139 ibid.

140 Ibid.

141 Jason Wingard, ‘ChatGPT: A Threat to Higher Education?’Forbes (10 January 2023) <https://www.forbes.com/sites/jasonwingard/2023/01/10/chatgpt-a-threat-to-higher-education/?sh=62c688f31e76> accessed 11 March 2023.

142 M. Megan Cerullo, ‘Princeton Student Says His New App Helps Teachers Find ChatGPT Cheats’ CBS News (10 January 2023) <https://www.cbsnews.com/news/chatgpt-princeton-student-gptzero-app-edward-tian/> accessed 11 March 2023. Also, Margaret Osborne, ‘Student Creates App to Detect Essays Written by AI’ Smithsonian Magazine (17 January 2023) <https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/student-creates-app-to-detect-essays-written-by-ai-180981463/> accessed 11 March 2023.

143 Osborne (n 142).

144 Jan Hendrik Kirchner and others, ‘New AI Classifier for Indicating AI-Written Text’ OpenAI (31 January 2023) <https://openai.com/blog/new-ai-classifier-for-indicating-ai-written-text> accessed 11 March 2023.