Inclusive teaching of palaeontology for people with and without disabilities through didactic workshops

ABSTRACT

This work describes the didactic preparation and the result of carrying out palaeontological workshops designed for all students, based on strategies with a didactic approach proposed by the Universal Design for Learning in the methodologies used by teachers that allow students with and without disabilities to access knowledge regardless of their deficiency, removing context barriers and maximising learning opportunities. In this work, didactic workshops based not only on elements related to geosciences but also on interactivity with palaeontologists themselves are proposed, with which an exchange of ideas and information is established.

KEYWORDS:

• Interactivity
• workshops
• palaeontology
• disability
• learning

Introduction

Inclusive education allows all students to receive a quality service, regardless of their identity, culture, religion, origin or disability. The Ministry of National Education, in decree 1421 of 2017, proposes strategies such as Universal Design for Learning, to generate environments accessible to knowledge. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 15% of the world population lives in a condition of disability, which is a public health problem (Serrano et al. 2013). The Census of the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) carried out in Colombia in 2018 reveals that there are 400.313 people under the age of 18 with disabilities, with 9.1% motor, 14.0% sensory, 34.8% cognitive, and 19.8% mental disabilities (Padilla-Muñoz 2011). Educational centres are willing to make physical adaptations for students with disabilities (e.g. Sevo 2011; Soto-Calderón 2003). Therefore, access to education for this population is in many cases restricted.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) strategies address these inequalities by improving the quality of education by creating more flexible and student-centred learning environments (e.g. Alba-Pastor 2019; Izzo 2012; Izzo, Murray, and Novak 2008). The UDL (e.g. Meyer, Rose, and Gordon 2016) is a model that aims to reformulate education by providing a conceptual framework that facilitate the analysis and evaluation of curricular designs and educational practices, to identify barriers to learning and promote inclusive teaching proposals (Alba-Pastor 2019). Therefore, the UDL provides a curriculum-based didactic perspective, which aims to give all students opportunities to learn, considering in its design the diversity of students’ abilities, through its three principles: providing multiple forms of involvement, provide multiple ways of presenting information and provide multiple forms of action and expression of learning (Alba-Pastor 2018; CAST 2011). Barriers are considered factors that hinder the participation and development of people, since they have a direct impact, both on the functioning of the organs and body structures, and on the performance of activities of daily life, productive and in social performance (Noreau and Boschen 2010). De Asís-Roig (2005) defines a barrier as ‘any obstacle that hinders or prevents, under conditions of equal opportunities and full participation, people's access to some of the areas of social life’. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities recognises the right to education based on the principles of non-discrimination and equal opportunities. To fulfil this right, the States Parties will ensure an inclusive education system at all levels, as well as teaching throughout life (United Nations 2006).

Education in Colombia must take on the challenge of contributing to the intellectual and sensitive development of all people with or without disabilities, in accordance with the principles of non-discrimination, accessibility and participation in full and effective inclusion in society, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in the laws 1346 of 2009 and 1618 of 2013 and the decree 1421 of 2017 of the Republic of Colombia to guarantee the full exercise of the rights of all persons and to ensure the effective exercise of the rights of persons with disabilities, through the adoption of inclusion measures, affirmative action and reasonable adjustments and eliminating all forms of discrimination. due to physical, auditory, visual, deafblind, intellectual, psychosocial or multiple disabilities. In Colombia, the educational institutions are responsible for facilitating the entry of people with disabilities, generating strategies that allow students with special educational needs to reach the basic standards of educational skills, establishing the appropriate adjustments. Public and private educational institutions must have mechanisms that facilitate access for people with disabilities and adapt study materials and pedagogical strategies according to their needs. Inclusive education must be seen as a permanent process that recognises, values and responds in a pertinent way to the diversity of characteristics, interests, possibilities and expectations of the students, through affirmative actions of the actors who are responsible for the training processes and thus speak of a quality education for all people.

The offer of didactic workshops of fundamentally palaeontological content for schoolchildren is relatively wide (e.g. Fragouli, Rokka, and Galani 2017; García-Gallo and Ramírez 2001; Ozkaya de Juanas and Barroso-Barcenilla 2019). Its success lies essentially in the curiosity generated in children by the strange creatures that populated Earth in the past, allowing the scientific method, reasoning, deduction, and sometimes more complicated abstract concepts to be assimilated into explanations. But there are few workshops accessible to all types and rhythms of learning, playful and/or informative, specially designed so that people with disabilities, regardless of their age, can also participate (Hontecillas et al. 2015). Palaeontology can be considered one of the most popular branches of the geosciences at schools and, mainly, fossils, recreating a world where large dinosaurs or ape-like human ancestors inhabited increasingly attract children, adolescents and adults (e.g. Calonge-García et al. 2003; Fragouli, Rokka, and Galani 2017). This discipline of geosciences that overlaps with geology and biology, cannot meet the strict requirements of an empirical science and its demarcation criteria in the sense of logical empiricists (Ebbighausen and Korn 2013). Fossils constitute a didactic potential that allows them to be used as a teaching resource in different settings (e.g. Calonge-García et al. 2003).

This work proposes the design of inclusive palaeontological workshops in which students with and without disabilities can participate, which could be developed in institutions of basic, secondary and higher education to develop curricular activities focused on palaeontology, to teach concepts relevant taking into account the formal standards of education and important topics of social interest such as evolution or climate change and increase the general knowledge of the participants on fossils and palaeontology.

Materials and methods

We developed a multidisciplinary work inspired by Jack Horner, renowned paleontologist and scientific advisor to Steven Spielberg's ‘Jurassic Park’ films, with the support of professionals in Geology, Education, Social Work and Occupational Therapy, contributing to the design of palaeontology didactic workshops for people with and without disabilities. The planning of workshops based on the development of universal educational activities, in such a way that flexible proposals are promoted that allow meaningful learning for all. The development of interactive activities that use attractive elements as a resource significantly favours the teaching process and the design of the workshops, rather than representing plastic or manual skill activities, they must generate challenges that force the participant to pose hypotheses and share them to reach reasoned conclusions (García-Frank et al. 2014).

The design of the workshops included the identification of fossil specimens collected during fieldwork, mostly from our region, organised in fossil kits to take to the classroom. This would also be accompanied by lectures that are attractive to students, along with interactive and experimental activities to promote increased general knowledge of participants about palaeontology. Through the development of workshops, it is intended to make inclusive education visible, by implementing the principles of the UDL, in palaeontology issues, these being useful so that students with disabilities can also participate, eliminating barriers, contemplating the uniqueness of each one and making everyone's success possible. These workshops will be based on the supply of multiple means to keep motivation active during this process is essential as it seeks to get students interested and involved in learning; multiple forms of representation with demonstration of teacher-directed content in multiple formats to activate the various types of learning of schoolchildren; guaranteeing access to and processing of information; and multiple forms of expression during the process, agreeing that students can participate in different ways depending on their interests or needs and particular skills to show the acquired knowledge. During the development of these workshops, it will be necessary to resort to the use of various playful, pedagogical styles, activating the motivation and maintaining it.

Results (palaeontological workshops)

The design of the workshops presented below integrate knowledge of the principles of UDL, through theoretical and practical activity, being essential that their development maintains an approach that considers all students, including those with disabilities, eliminating possible barriers when acquiring knowledge. Considering that the UDL has a teaching approach aimed at meeting the needs of all participants, the workshops were planned considering to communicate the objectives of the activities to be carried out, to propose students with multiple ways to express learning according to their abilities and preferences, to be flexible and adaptable workspaces to break methodological, attitudinal, physical or social barriers.

The workshops of palaeontology were designed for a group of 15 students with and without disabilities per instructor, with a duration of 1 h. The resources necessary for their development should be of interest to the students, who will be able to make use of them within the classroom, supporting the activities of reading and writing of the academic curriculum. Through the practical activities of the workshops, students will develop multiple intelligences and integration skills (spatial-visual, linguistic-verbal, naturalistic, logical-mathematical interpersonal and intrapersonal, and corporal-kinesthetics). The development of these workshops will start from a reading that allows students to be contextualised and give meaning to their future intervention. From this reading, relevant questions will be asked to try to begin to problematise the situation and prepare the search for solutions. The questions initially asked, after reading, should favour learning and/or the appropriation of the problem posed by the students (González-Piñero 2016) and with questions with a considerable degree of openness to favour the creative production of proposals formulated in an assertive way by students (Márquez and Roca 2006). The formation of discussion groups is of great importance in the consensus of the initial models, promoting dynamics of scientific practice, such as collaborative work and based on discussion contexts (Pollock, Hamann, and Wilson 2011).

Simulated palaeontological excavation

Objectives: To know the materials and working methods of palaeontologists during fieldwork in a fossil site and to carry out a simulated palaeontological excavation.

Resources needed: introductory videos on (1) the work of the palaeontologist and palaeontological excavation, (2) fossils, and (3) types of fossils, with captions available, 50 cm x 50 cm x 10 cm wooden boxes (length, width and height) with fine sand, brushes, toothbrushes, shovels and plastic buckets, fossil replicas in cast plaster, strong firing thread, screws, paper, pencil.

Development: The activity should begin with an activation of previous concepts of the students and how to use them in the world of palaeontology and a brief explanation with the use of readings, slides with photos and videos, didactic sheets, fossil replicas, demonstration tour (mobility for all) on the role played by palaeontologists during fieldwork (excavation), laboratory (preparation and analysis of fossil specimens), and cabinet (arrangement of fossil collections). Participants would have the opportunity to familiarise themselves not only with the fieldwork carried out by palaeontologists on an excavation but also with the necessary elements and their uses. This activity must be carried out with patience until you find a fossil taking exclusive care in its collection. Excavation could be done in an open-air sandpit, although to prevent contamination, it is important to keep it covered without exposure to the environment. However, it is proposed to work with a wooden box with sand (to which screws will be put to later make the grid) to recreate the palaeontological excavation (Figure 1) by groups with the participation of 4 students per work kit in which it is intended to promote collaborative work, roles (leader and collaborators) and responsibilities or functions to be fulfilled within the activity to be carried out, cooperation of sensations and exchange of ideas and experiences. Initially, replicas of fossils (some of which could be glued) should be placed inside the wooden boxes, preferably those with original counterparts, from a selection of Colombian fossils (cephalopods, gastropods, bivalves, echinoderms, crinoids, bryozoans, trilobites). The wooden box will be filled with fine sand to cover the fossil specimens. The ‘reservoir’ model must be divided with the help of strong firing wire and screws to obtain the excavation grids (10 × 10 cm²). It is necessary to ensure that students with reduced mobility have access to the site model (wooden box with a grid on it) or that the grids are larger to minimise mobility barriers. On the other hand, it is important to consider where and how to locate them to guarantee access. Subsequently, participants must unearth three fossil specimens with the help of brushes, brushes, shovels and plastic buckets and wait for their classmates to finish the activity, to continue together to the next phases.

Figure 1. Preparation of a small-scale palaeontological excavation.

After the excavation, students will have the freedom according to their abilities and preferences to express their learning from the selection of options such as capturing a drawing of each of the collected fossil specimens, including their description, as part of the work documentation in the fieldwork, take photos of palaeontological discoveries, cut out drawings of the collected specimens or paste the drawings made on a mural, and establish what type of animal or plant they belonged to. Based on a comparison process with the supplied didactic material, students may offer a brief overview of their main habits, the period in which they lived and other characteristics.

To create a laboratory environment, students will have to clean and prepare the fossils to remove the sand particles with a brush for further study. Finally, students will carry out a cabinet work comparing the replicas of the collected fossils and their original counterparts, establishing differences.

Observations: It is evident that this activity could be adapted not only depending on the ages of the participants but also on their cognitive level, for which the degree of demand for this would be gradual. The levels of demand would be gradual (low, moderate and high), according to the individual characteristics of each participant. Some of the benefits of sand play include stimulating creativity from kinesthetics, visual, and social learning. This experimental learning generates a sensory awareness, receiving information from the senses, since putting your hands in the sand provides different superficial tactile sensations from the temperature, depending on whether it is dry or wet, exerting pressure, recognising whether it is hard or soft, etc., allowing you to recreate reliefs, make palaeontological discoveries (as you would like the details of a fossil to be exposed when the sand is removed with a brush or brush), perceive the texture of the sand particles and its temperature, trace letters and drawings etc. Likewise, it contributes to the improvement of fine motor skills, visual motor coordination, laterality, among others.

Preparation of fossil replicas

Objectives: Prepare the replica of a fossil, analyse the characteristics of the fossil, to relate it to the original organism and this, in turn, to the corresponding palaeoenvironment, learn about the work of cabinet and palaeontological outreach, and appreciate the importance of scientific outreach.

Resources needed: Illustrative video of how to make a replica of a fossil, with available subtitles, fossil samples, illustrative plates of fossils, images of palaeoenvironments, modelling clay, cast plaster, water, plastic cup, mixer, backer, black water base paint, sheets of paper, plasticine, spoon, pencils.

Development: Initially, the participants will carry out a cabinet work based on the use of the palaeontology collection to draw conclusions from the activity carried out previously, thinking critically to relate a fossil with the palaeoenvironment in which the organism lived to which it corresponds. Once its palaeoenvironment has been identified, the fossil must be deposited in the palaeontology collection, as a method of dissemination to publicise the scientific findings to society. Later, students will be able to choose between the following options: make a drawing, take a photograph, cut and paste pieces of coloured paper on a drawing or collect on a sheet with different species, the one that corresponds to that of the fossils extracted from of which they will carry out their recognition and identification with the help of the support group and didactic aids, providing options for expression and communication based on the use of different demonstrative means and the development of verbal and auditory learning so that the student can demonstrate their practical experience. Next, students will carry out the preparation of the fossil replica of an ammonite (Figure 2). Initially, they will take modelling clay, which represents a known and easily manageable material, kneading it and printing on it the fossil with which they are working, to obtain a mould. Then, mould plaster will be mixed with water until a paste is obtained; the mould will be filled with the resulting paste; it will wait until its total drying, the hardened paste will be separated from the plasticine mould and finally black paint will be applied to the replica to achieve a colour tone similar to the usual support of fossils. In this way, a beautiful fossil specimen will be obtained to contribute to the assembly of palaeontology collections, which may begin to increase progressively.

Figure 2. Preparation of the fossil replica of an ammonite.

Observations: This workshop is essential to develop scientific thinking and establish knowledge through experience, creating spaces of knowledge in which learning and play are combined. Following the adaptations proposed in the previous activity, it is convenient to provide manipulative materials that are easy to use in such a way that all students can participate in the construction and composition, promoting the development of sensory, motor and perceptual skills.

Fossil study

Objectives: To know the method of laboratory work, identify a fossil comparing it with another and prepare the replica of a fossil.

Resources needed: Explanatory video on what a fossil is to illustrate this concept, with available subtitles, toothbrushes, fossil samples, illustrations of fossils, water, sheets of paper, pencils.

Development: The activity should begin with a brief explanation of the concept of ‘fossil’ and its meaning in the geological record, using vocabulary with key words and symbols on different types of fossils. On the other hand, fossil specimens, images, photographs and videos will be used to illustrate the main ideas through multiple media, with materials in different formats and levels of difficulty for all students to access that information, with alternatives to the visual and the auditory from the use of printed texts with the auditory information, subtitles in the videos, options in digital format, etc. Once the fossil specimens are excavated and collected, they should be taken to the laboratory, where they will be cleaned and washed using simple techniques (toothbrush and water). Using as a reference a selection of original fossils (Figure 3), participants should observe and compare between the replicas and their original counterparts in relation to types of fossils, fundamental characteristics (size and shape), main ideas and relationships between them, which will be guided by the support group to contribute to the information processing, visualisation and manipulation of original fossils. In addition to the anticipated flexibility, specific adaptations will be made when required to overcome visual (low vision and blindness) and mobility barriers (e.g. Asher 2001; Owens and Lambert 2003). Obviously, visually impaired people could touch the fossils in such a way that they can have a tactile experience, however alternatives could be provided, such as tactile images of fossils (outlined in relief), Braille descriptions or hearing aid (audio) with the characteristics and description of the fossils, whose classification could be through numbers. Once identified, each replica must be classified, recording the data of the corresponding label of the original fossil.

Figure 3. Observation and analysis of original fossils.

Observations: To avoid visual, cognitive or mobility barriers, it is important to establish different levels of difficulty in relation to the observation and analysis of original fossils, for which the students could choose one of the following options: describe their fundamental characteristics (size and shape), draw the fossils, cut out the correct label, and paste the drawings of the fossils on a mural. On the other hand, it is necessary to provide non-visual alternatives, such as Braille, larger font size, convert the information of the labels to audio and number them, etc. Students with visual disabilities learn through sensory channels other than vision, mainly hearing (Trowbridge, Bybee, and Powell 2004). Therefore, it is recommended to locate them closer to the sound source and where there is better lighting. Unfortunately, the best area for optimal sound may not be well lit, and vice versa. Therefore, it is necessary to allow the visually impaired student to move from one place to another. These adaptations will favour meaningful learning in people with visual disabilities.

Fossil or not?

Objectives: Introduce Palaeontology and fossils, learn that there are different types of fossils, and learn about fossilisation processes and types.

Necessary resources: Explanatory video about the fossilisation process, fossil samples, illustrative pictures of fossils, illustration to differentiate whether or not it is a fossil (skeleton of a vertebrate, trilobite, cnidaria, fossilised wood, ammonite, dinosaur ichnite, insect in amber and walnut), posters, sheets of paper, pencils.

Development: The activity should start with a brief explanation, providing multiple options (videos, didactic sheets, real examples, etc.) on the fossilisation processes that allow the preservation of the remains of organisms in sedimentary rocks (Figure 4) to stimulate perception through the senses. In this way, participants will be able to take a fantastic trip to the past of our planet to learn about the environment in which organisms lived or died. This activity will require having fixed the previous knowledge to eliminate barriers of understanding and assimilation, as well as to promote motivation, security and success.

Figure 4. Fossilisation process.

Subsequently, posters with previously explained information will be provided and placed in a visible and accessible place for the participants. In relation to offering non-visual alternatives, an audio or Braille description of the poster could be presented, clarifying the vocabulary and symbols to become familiar with the vocabulary and the symbols that may appear on the posters. In the available space, there will be three tables with labels alluding to ‘Fieldwork’, ‘Laboratory work’, and ‘Cabinet work and dissemination’. Each participant will be provided with three illustrative sheets, each of which must be used at the corresponding table. In the three work tables, a sheet with information will be provided, generating non-visual alternatives such as text / voice descriptions to images, graphics and videos; fossil specimens and replicas; auditory cues. On the other hand, work in pairs could be carried out to ensure that, if a student could not read it well, in pairs they support each other so that the information is accessible to all. In the table ‘Fieldwork’, a sheet will be placed on the phases of the excavation process of a palaeontological deposit to record the relevant data on a file. However, multiple means of communication and tools for construction and composition could be used. In the table ‘Laboratory work’, a sheet will be placed on the different types of fossils, with the aim of identifying and documenting them through multiple means of communication and tools for construction and composition (for example, files), providing the possibility of completing the cards in various possible ways, with different options to complete them, according to the possibilities and preferences of the participants or use some other means to produce results. Each of the students must then choose at least one of the fossils from among those that will be offered with different levels of difficulty (low, moderate and high) and resources to optimise the challenges. In pairs, they will be given instructions to draw the selected fossil, defining educational skills with graduated levels of support for practice and execution; for example, using an instruction template with key information to guide the process or the steps to carry it out or templates to carry out the drawing. Another alternative would be to establish what type of animal or plant they belonged to, through a process of comparison with the didactic material provided. In this way methodological barriers are removed, for which it is essential to review previous concepts. Considering that students should already know about the concept of ‘fossil’ and types of fossils, they should organise the material (plates, specimens) in three groups according to whether they are (1) corporeal fossils, (2) fossil traces and (3) it is not a fossil (labels can be prepared if possible), based on the photographs in Figure 5. In the table ‘Cabinet work and dissemination’ the cards corresponding to each of the fossils studied will be placed, carrying out a group discussion and feedback on the responses obtained to ensure the autonomy of the students’ learning process. This increases the ability to track progress, using reflection templates and multiple strategies: peer-to-peer, large group with monitor as discussion facilitator, etc. On the other hand, the feedback could be directed towards mastery in that task.

Figure 5. Which of these photographs does not correspond to a fossil?

Observations: These activities are expected to have a positive response among the participants, since they are short and simple, and introduce new knowledge that is interesting. Participants must develop self-evaluation and reflection on each of the activities carried out through evaluation templates, checklists or rubrics, carrying out an evaluation in each case. On the other hand, this workshop seeks to generate curiosity and motivate interest in students towards palaeontological sites, since there is the (fossil) evidence of the organisms that inhabited our planet millions of years ago, which will be of great help in the teaching-learning process.

The dinosaurs

Objectives: To introduce the Palaeontology of vertebrates (dinosaurs), know the main types of dinosaurs, distinguish dinosaurs from other reptiles with which they lived, expand knowledge about the anatomy of living beings, particularly vertebrates, and understand concepts about geological time and the changes that occurred on Earth during its history.

Necessary resources: Explanatory videos about dinosaurs and how to make dinosaur bones, illustrative cards about dinosaurs, puzzles, drawings of dinosaur skeletons, diagrams of bones and their parts of dinosaurs and a model of fossilisation, posters about dinosaurs and their location on the geological time scale, sheets of paper, pencils, colours, modelling clay, erasers, coloured paintings, bones of some vertebrates, miniature replica of a dinosaur skeleton divided into groups of anatomical elements, replicas of bones in cardboard, and ink pads. In the case of the bones of some vertebrates such as catfish, chicken or pork, these can be obtained in butchers or after home consumption. However, the bones must be previously treated so that the students can use them during the workshop. In the case of cardboard bone replicas, these could be made in 2D or 3D, to scale, taking as reference the bones of a fossil vertebrate (dinosaur), which will be carried out using cardboard, glue and colours.

Development: Initially, students will be presented with a didactic sheet about the world of dinosaurs (Figure 6(a)), which represents a valuable resource for learning in the classroom. On the other hand, it is an illustration material to represent the environment in which dinosaurs lived in a visual way, which must be colourful and attractive to students, of an appropriate size so that it is visible to all, and I specify what is to be highlighted so as not to cause confusion among the students and detract attention from what they hope to achieve in the learning process. In relation to people with visual impairment, this resource could be reproduced with textures and relief. Similarly, dinosaur scale replicas (Figure 6(b)) could be used to perceive their morphological features through the sense of touch. These resources, which serve as visual support, seek to motivate the learning of the contents to develop in a significant way, guide the class, develop observation in the students, encourage communication through dialogue, description and narration. with arguments. Finally, the function of these resources is to visually clarify and support the content to be developed by the teacher, and, being a visual material, it makes the classes more attractive, interesting, motivating, dynamic and participatory, thus achieving more attention by the students.

Figure 6. (a) Landscape where the dinosaurs lived. (b) Dinosaur scale replicas.

For the development of these workshop, perception options will be provided to ensure that students have access to information regarding the composition, structure and function of bones and how their fossilisation occurs, as well as the structure of the skeleton, is that is, the way bones are arranged in vertebrates. The activity is carried out in groups of 5 participants to promote teamwork. Furthermore, alternatives will be offered with recorded audio/explanations, explanatory panels with photos, simple illustrations and diagrams, and short descriptions (Figure 7). A series of illustrations of the main ideas through multiple means (visual, auditory, textual or digital), will show in detail the fossilisation process that the remains of a marine reptile undergo from its death, until its discovery by a palaeontologist. Several detailed photographs of the bone of a current vertebrate will reveal the parts into which the bones are divided (cortical, spongy tissue and medullary cavity) and, finally, there will be two diagrams on the complete skeleton of a dinosaur that show the arrangement of the bones in the skeleton; one of them is a realistic figure and the other, idealised, corresponds to the replica that will be handled by the participants. Participants will be able to establish what type of dinosaur the studied bones belong to, based on a process of comparison with the didactic material provided, which offers a brief overview of their main habits, the period in which they lived and other characteristics.

Figure 7. Example of a panel to use in the dinosaur workshop.

For this workshop, there will be 2D replicas that represent, on a small scale and in a simplified form, the parts of the skeleton of a dinosaur (cervical, dorsal and caudal vertebrae, shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, ribs, legs and skull) (Figure 8). Participants must put them together correctly, as a ‘puzzle’, on a card where the silhouette of the animal will be drawn and then they will draw the complete skeleton on each of the personal cards, indicating after which part of the skeleton each one corresponds.

Figure 8. Dinosaur puzzle.

Defining skills with graduated levels of support (low, moderate and high) for practice and execution, the figures represented in the explanatory panel can be used. On the drawing of the Brachiosaurus (Figure 9(a)), place the bones in place (Figure 9(b)) until completing the puzzle and finally label each of the bones with the corresponding name, marking their parts with an arrow (Figure 9(c)).

Figure 9. Card for the activity in which the participants place the parts of the skeleton of the Braquiosaurus on the drawing of the dinosaur and stamp the bone seals on the circle.

Discovering fossil footprints (ichnites)

Objectives: To understand the method of work of palaeontologists with fossil footprints (ichnites), raise awareness about the variety of information provided by fossil footprints, and extract palaeontological information from a fossil footprint, learn to identify the different types of footprints and the dinosaurs that produced them, their size, their speed of movement and their behaviour.

Resources needed: Clay, casting plaster, modelling clay, scale models of dinosaurs, invertebrate fossils, plant leaves, measuring ruler, sheets of paper, pencils, teaching materials (tab with pictures of fingerprint types and series of questions).

Development: The workshop will begin with an investigation of previous concepts and how to use them on fossil footprints and a brief explanation on the fossilisation processes of footprints, their different types and the organisms that can give rise to them with the use of readings, slides with photos and videos, didactic sheets, providing different options for perception. The description of the morphological characteristics of the main groups of dinosaurs and their tracks will be developed. Concepts about fossilisation and the differences between direct remains (bones) and indirect remains (footprints, coprolites, burrows, etc.) will also be included. The fossil footprints (ichnofossils) are an example of elements of the fossil record that allow us to know the activities that living beings carried out millions of years ago. The didactic workshop will show the participants the information that can be obtained about the dinosaurs’ way of life and their morphology from the footprint deposits. As educational material, an explanatory panel will be used that contains diagrams on the production of footprints and their fossilisation, their main types (sauropods, ornithopods, theropods, and thyrophores) (Figure 10), plans of idealised palaeontological sites with fossil footprints, plasticine plates, and scale dinosaur figures and models.

Figure 10. Characteristic footprints of large groups of dinosaurs: theropods, ornithopods, sauropods, and thyrophores.

Participants will learn about symbols and simple mathematical formulas to explain processes of the natural world. In a scheme with footprints and measurements, the formulas obtained experimentally from the documentation of current animals by García-Ramos, Piñuela, and Lires (2001). However, to avoid methodological and attitudinal barriers, it is proposed to vary the levels of demand (low, moderate and high) and the resources to optimise the challenges. To promote the exchange of ideas, the workshop will be organised in groups of five participants, who must answer the questions asked, using the necessary tools (measuring utensils). The interpretive panel will present a practical content in which several schematics of palaeontological sites with dinosaur tracks and traces are reproduced from which information about their behaviour can be obtained (Figure 11), for example: (1) movement in herd with the young in the centre and the back trace of the passage of a theropod (carnivore); (2) ornithopod that presents some pathology causes an abnormal trace and is surrounded by theropods and later attacked; (3) set of different trails, representing various groups, come to the same point attracted by water. In this activity, participants will be able to determine different perceptual processes about the characteristics and behaviour of dinosaurs, such as the size of the dinosaur according to the type of dinosaur, and the length of the footprint (L) depending on the height of the hip (h) and speed (function of Z and h). Hypotheses will be discussed and a conclusion will be reached with the help of the support group.

Figure 11. Distribution of various dinosaur tracks in a palaeontological deposit and interpretation of their behaviour.

In the second part, the type of locomotion, the speed of movement and the size of the dinosaur will be calculated from a trace made by the participants themselves on their plasticine plates. They will take the footprint and trace length measurements of a theropod-like dinosaur (Acrocanthosaurus), a smaller relative of the Tyrannosaurus rex (Figure 12), and apply the formulas on the paper. They will then calculate the actual size of the dinosaur and transfer the measurements obtained to the actual size, checking if it matches the height of the dinosaur and if its speed and type of movement are consistent. In this way, it will be possible to establish their habits and characteristics. What did they eat? How did they live? Why did they become extinct? All these questions have their answer in some important finding, such as dinosaur footprints.

Figure 12. Left, measurements of the footprint and traces of a theropod dinosaur (Acrocanthosaurus), useful to obtain the size of the animal and its speed of movement. Right, footprint and traces of an Acrocanthosaurus of more than 100 million years sculpted on the rocky bed of the Paluxy River, Dinosaur Valley State Park, Glen Rose, Texas (USA).

Observations: Through the feedback, it is expected that this workshop will be valued in a very positive way by the participants, as dinosaurs are a topic that generates great interest and curiosity on the part of children, adolescents and adults, with a differential focus, so that learning barriers are not generated due to the different abilities of the students.

Discussion

The present initiative of inclusive teaching of palaeontology proposes the development of didactic workshops, through which the use of multisensory materials, essential as pedagogical tools to promote palaeontological knowledge for all people, with and without disabilities, is promoted. Multisensory materials are of great help to transmit knowledge to anyone, but the time each of them needs to understand and assimilate it is different, especially in the case of people with functional diversity (García-Frank et al. 2014).

Currently, there are previous experiences through simulations and outreach activities of palaeontology with students of the Geology in some educational institutions. However, this initiative is focused on achieving learning results in the line of experiences carried out by other authors, providing in this case, an inclusive vision, based on the UDL model, with responses to address the diversity of participants in their capabilities and preferences. The application of the UDL to the design of the workshops allows them to be presented to any group simply by adapting the discourse to the audience.

It is important to highlight that, for the Colombian context, the proposed workshops pose a challenge towards the inclusive teaching of palaeontology, representing a new and innovative initiative due to the topic of study, the methodology and the inclusive approach of workshops, so that students with different abilities can participate. From the UDL perspective, the activities to be carried out could contribute to the design of strategies that allow eliminating possible barriers to the acquisition of knowledge, generating significant learning, where inclusion is the main engine in said process (Moreno et al. 2014). On the other hand, the workshops will resort to the use of resources necessary to respond to the variability of the participants, taking the principles of the UDL as a frame of reference (CAST 2011), in such a way that its manipulation is easy, using visual stimuli, auditory, tactile and proprioceptive.

The study of fossils from the perspective of the senses represents an interesting pedagogical challenge to achieve a more inclusive education and to remove barriers for people with disabilities. Obviously, palaeontology, like all geological disciplines, is completely visual and, therefore, with an added difficulty to be detected by people with visual disabilities. Therefore, to eliminate visual barriers (low vision and blindness) (e.g. Asher 2001; Owens and Lambert 2003), it will be necessary to provide non-visual alternatives (CAST 2011), such as Braille transcription of the contents and analogies. In this way, it is expected to develop didactic activities in the path of haptic experimentation, contributing to improve the knowledge of palaeontology and its object of study.

At the end of the workshops it will be necessary to carry out a satisfaction survey to know the teachers’ perception regarding the inclusive teaching of palaeontology for students with or without disabilities. In general terms, this survey seeks to establish the level of acceptance that the development of the proposed workshops could reach. On the other hand, each participant will present their appreciation on the development of the scientific dissemination workshops, hoping that the proposed activities constitute a personalised, entertaining and dynamic experience thanks to the adaptation of both multisensory materials and the scenarios where the workshops would take place.

The experiences obtained in previous studies (e.g. García-Frank et al. 2014; Ozkaya de Juanas and Barroso-Barcenilla 2019) reveal that the development of palaeontological workshops not only contributes to the knowledge of palaeontology but also to the fulfilment of different educational objectives. In this sense, inclusive teaching of palaeontology for people with and without disabilities through didactic workshops could provide innovative alternatives for the development and consolidation of the ability to work individually and in teams, the acquisition and understanding of concepts in the world of palaeontology, fossilisation factors and processes, the application of methods to identify problems in the palaeontological field and solve them, reaching founded conclusions, the ability to relate data obtained from different sources, learning to analyse and classify data, the integration of palaeontological knowledge with other disciplines in the field of geosciences, the correct expression of concepts and complex messages of a scientific nature and, finally, the knowledge, valuation and respect of palaeontological heritage.

Finally, it is hoped to ensure that the participants of these workshops come out with a greater general knowledge of fossils and palaeontology, which represents an interesting challenge, since the participants will have different backgrounds and levels of understanding of the content to be developed. However, it is essential to promote interaction between the participants to achieve a better understanding of palaeontology, hoping that it will be used not only by the students but also by the teachers who accompany the process. We believe that this initiative could provide pedagogical strategies for the inclusive teaching of palaeontology in educational institutions, providing the necessary resources so that the activities are accessible to all those who participate, and that the different capacities are not barriers.

Conclusions

Obviously, the proposal of inclusive teaching of palaeontology for people with and without disabilities through didactic workshops, although it is not novel worldwide as there are works on it, in the context of our country, if it constitutes an innovative initiative because it seeks the transfer of palaeontological concepts from an inclusive perspective, in which people with disabilities can also participate. The use of the UDL has facilitated the design of the workshops thinking about the variability of the users and thus provide flexible responses so that all the participants can learn. In this way, the working group considered it of great importance to adapt the programmatic contents so that they are accessible to participants with different abilities, using simple language and without technicalities. For the design of the proposed workshops, the team's multidisciplinary work has been of great importance. The proposed activities enhance the development of talent and creativity of the participants, as well as arouse interest in living beings from the past, which is a personal enrichment. On the other hand, the knowledge acquired and the development of skills and abilities that the participants could achieve last over time, as demonstrated by previous experiences. Finally, for the working group, this experience has led to greater awareness regarding education for all, inclusive education and the elimination of barriers for people with disabilities, and have encouraged the programming of new workshops in the future. The experience that is expected to be obtained from the realisation of the educational workshops on inclusive palaeontology will be of great help to counteract the marginality to which people with disabilities are subjected, which is a reason to continue with the development of geoeducation activities. for the transfer of knowledge of the geosciences to which people with and without disabilities may have access.

Acknowledgements

The authors are very grateful to the students of the Geological Heritage Research Seedbed of the Research Group in Basic and Applied Geology of the Geology School of the Universidad Industrial de Santander and the EducaDUA team for supporting the development of different geoeducation activities. We also thank Universidad Industrial de Santander for providing appropriate settings such as U18, Earth Science Week and the Neighbors and Friends Program where numerous participants attended for the execution of these activities. We thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions on this manuscript.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Carlos A. Ríos-Reyes

Carlos A. Ríos Reyes is a geologist and specialist in University teaching from the Universidad Industrial de Santander, a Master in Geology from the University of Shimane and a PhD in Applied Sciences from the University of Wolverhampton. He is lecturer of mineralogy, petrology, environmental sciences and fieldwork at the School of Geology from the Universidad Industrial de Santander. He has coordinated geoeducation activities with students in elementary and secondary schools.

Karina A. Portilla-Mendoza

Karina A. Portilla-Mendoza is a geologist from the Universidad Industrial de Santander and candidate an MSC in Geology from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, with experience in medical geology, geochemistry, scientific illustration and art.

Yeison M. Carrillo-Hernández

Yeison M. Carrillo-Hernández is student of geology from the Universidad Industrial de Santander and is actually the leader of the Research Seedbed in Geological Heritage of the Research Group in Basic and Applied Geology of the Geology School of this institution, developing geoeducation activities with students in elementary and secondary schools.

Sara L. Díaz-Gutiérrez

Sara L. Díaz-Gutiérrez is an occupational therapist from the Universidad de Santander, with experience in analysis of teaching tools, concepts and pedagogical practices that surround the implementation of the DUA (Universal Learning Design) and the PIAR (Integrated Plans of Reasonable Adjustments).

Norma S. Gutiérrez-Quintero

Norma S. Gutiérrez-Quintero is a licentiate in languages from the Universidad Industrial de Santander, with experience as a teacher of English in preschool, primary and secondary school, and as a teacher of English and Spanish as foreign languages to people whose mother tongue is not English or Spanish. She has also experience as a professional for children ages 8–19 with autism and/or complex communication and sensory needs.

Oscar M. Castellanos-Alarcón

Oscar M. Castellanos Alarcón is a geologist from the Universidad Industrial de Santander, a Master in Geology from the University of Shimane and a Doctor in Geosciences from the National University of Colombia. He is lecturer of mineralogy, petrology, environmental sciences and fieldwork at the Programme of Geology from the University of Pamplona.

Carmen Alba-Pastor

Carmen Alba-Pastor is a Doctor of Education and a lecturer at the Faculty of Education of the Complutense University of Madrid. Her teaching career combines training in new technologies applied to education and attention to diversity. She is a member of the University Network for Educational Research and Innovation (REUNI + D) and is part of EducaDUA, a space dedicated to research, training and dissemination of Universal Design for Learning in Spanish. Research interest include Universal Design for Learning in education and teacher training; Inclusive education; Didactics, curriculum and attention to diversity; Digital resources in teaching.

Mónica López-Alba

Monica López-Alba forms part of EducaDUA, a platform created from the DUALETIC Project for the dissemination of Universal Design for Learning in Spanish improvement.