![Sample our Humanities journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5939/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Humanities.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
Republic of Korea (ROK) lobbying in the United States during the 1970s, which blew up into the Koreagate scandal, is a widely known but understudied episode in US-ROK relations. Utilizing declassified documents from the ROK Ministry of Foreign Affairs, this article argues President Park Chung Hee was pressured by Congressional condemnation of his human rights abuses and he sought to tame criticism through lobbying. To this end, ROK diplomats actively lobbied Congress in an attempt to guide the narrative of human rights hearings, temper legislation to cut military aid and force withdrawal of US troops from Korea, and silence critics.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Maxine Cheshire and Scott Armstrong, ‘Seoul Gave Millions to U.S. Officials: S. Korea Gave Millions in Cash, Gifts to Congressmen’, Washington Post, October 24, 1976.
2 Charles R. Babcock, ‘Koreagate: Bringing Forth a Mouse, But an Honest One’, Washington Post, October 9, 1978.
3 For example, Victor Cha and Joo-Hong Nam both argue the scandal heightened abandonment fears in Seoul due to strong pressure from Congress to force Korean officials to testify during hearings (Victor D. Cha, Alignment despite Antagonism: The U.S.-Korea-Japan Security Triangle (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), 151; Joo-Hong Nam, America’s Commitment to South Korea: The First Decade of the Nixon Doctrine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 156-8.). Clint Work shows how Koreagate investigations acted as a restraint on Carter’s plan to withdraw US troops from the ROK. See Clint Work, ‘A Fly in Amber: Carter’s Korea Troop Withdrawal & the Recasting of U.S. Hegemony and Korean Agency’ (PhD diss., University of Washington, 2019), 353-79.
4 Chae-Jin Lee, A Troubled Peace: U.S. Policy and the Two Koreas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 95-102.
5 Chung-in Moon, ‘Complex Interdependence and Transnational Lobbying: South Korea in the United States’, International Studies Quarterly 32, no. 1 (1988): 67-89; Hae Young Lee, ‘An Analysis of Koreagate: “Tongsun Park” Affair and Its Impacts upon American Lobbying Policy’, The Journal of Korean Public Policy 7 (2007): 54-66; Shelley Sang-Hee Lee, ‘The Party’s Over: Sex, Gender, and Orientalism in the Koreagate Scandal of the 1970s’, Frontiers 39, no. 3 (2018): 1-28.
6 Robert Boettcher, a staff director for the House Subcommittee on International Relations which was one Congressional committees investigating Koreagate, wrote a book entitled Gifts of Deceit: Sun Myung Moon, Tongsun Park and the Korean Scandal (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980) summarizing the findings of the Congressional investigations. Boettcher’s work is a crisp summary of the findings and focuses primarily on the first two dimensions. However, the eleventh chapter of his book is entitled ‘Kim Dong Jo: The Still-Untold Story’, Kim Dong Jo being the ROK Ambassador to the United States during much of the time the bribing of members of Congress was taking place. The chapter states that Congress was unable to uncover much information on the activities of ROK officials due to a lack of admissible evidence. This paper thus is a first attempt to tell this ‘untold story’ through MoFA documents unavailable to Congress at the time.
7 Boettcher, Gifts of Deceit, 96.
8 Lee, A Troubled Peace, 56-63.
9 Terence Roehrig, ‘North Korea and the Northern Limit Line’, North Korean Review 5, no. 1 (Spring 2009): 8-22; Don Oberdorfer, The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 47-83.
10 In another study utilizing recently declassified MoFA documents on ROK lobbying, Cho One-sun argues that abandonment fears were a key reason behind ROK government Congressional lobbying in the 1970s. See Cho, One-Sun, ‘Juhanmigun cheolsuapbage daehan hangugui daeeungyeongu: podeu haengjeongbu sigi hangugui daemiuihoerobi jeollyak’ [A Study of the ROK’s Response to Pressure Levied by the U.S.’s Withdrawal Policy: The ROK’s Lobbying Strategy toward the U.S. Congress during the Ford Administration], Dongbugayeongu [Journal of Northeast Asia Research] 35, no. 1 (2020): 139-74.
11 A limited list of excellent research on the rise of the Korean democracy movement in the 1970s includes Hak-Kyu Sohn, Authoritarianism and Opposition in South Korea (London: Routledge, 1989); Sunhyuk Kim, The Politics of Democratization in Korea: The Role of Civil Society (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000); Paul Y. Chang, Protest Dialectics: State Repression and South Korea’s Democracy Movement, 1970-1979 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2015); and Ingu Hwang, Human Rights and Transnational Democracy in South Korea (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2022).
12 There is a wealth of wonderful research on the rise and activities of this human rights movement in the United States in the 1970s including Sarah B. Snyder, From Selma to Moscow: How Human Rights Activists Transformed U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018); Barbara J. Keys, Reclaiming American Virtue: The Human Rights Revolution of the 1970s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014); Clair Apodaca, Understanding U.S. Human Rights Policy: A Paradoxical Legacy (New York: Routledge, 2006); and Kenneth Cmiel, ‘The Emergence of Human Rights Politics in the United States’, The Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (1999): 1231-50.
13 Subcommittee on International Organizations, Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Investigation of Korean-American Relations (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), 3.
14 Park Dong-seon was indicted on several charges including bribery and providing illegal campaign contributions, but these charges were later dropped and he was given immunity in exchange for testimony about his dealings with members of Congress. Although Kim Han-jo was convicted of conspiracy and lying to a federal grand jury, because there is no proof he gave any money to members of Congress he is a lesser known figure in the story. Suzi Park Thompson was an aide to Speaker of the House Carl Albert and was suspected of ties to the Korean Central Intelligence Agency, but she was never charged with a crime.
15 Robert Boettcher’s book provides a crisp summary of the Unification Church’s activities in the United States (Boettcher, Gifts of Deceit, 31-55, 144-86, 307-24). However, as a fairly secretive organization, diving deeper into the Unification Church’s role in the lobbying campaign is exceedingly difficult.
16 Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume XIX, Part 1, Korea, 1969-1972, eds. Daniel J. Lawler, and Erin R. Mahan (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 58.
17 Peter Banseok Kwon, ‘Building Bombs, Building a Nation: The State, Chaebol, and the Militarized Industrialization of South Korea, 1973-1979’, Journal of Asian Studies 79, no. 1 (2020): 51-75. Seung-Young Kim, ‘Security, Nationalism and the Pursuit of Nuclear Weapons and Missiles: The South Korean Case, 1970-1982’, Diplomacy and Statecraft 12, no. 4 (2001): 53-80; Se Young Jang, ‘The Evolution of US Extended Deterrence and South Korea’s Nuclear Ambitions’, Journal of Strategic Studies 39, no. 4 (2016): 502-20.
18 For an in-depth discussion of the provision of economic benefits to the ROK in exchange for troop deployments to Vietnam, see Tae Yang Kwak, ‘The Anvil of War: Legacies of Korean Participation in the Vietnam War’ (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2006), 86-117.
19 Tae-Gyun Park, ‘Beyond the Myth: Reassessing the Security Crisis on the Korean Peninsula during the Mid-1960s’, Pacific Affairs 82, no. 1 (2009): 93-110; Mitchell B. Lerner, The Pueblo Incident: A Spy Ship and the Failure of American Foreign Policy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002).
20 Benjamin A. Engel, ‘Viewing Seoul from Saigon: Withdrawal from the Vietnam War and the Yusin Regime’, Journal of Northeast Asian History 13, no. 1 (2016): 89-91.
21 Daniel J. Sargent, A Superpower Transformed: The Remaking of American Foreign Relations in the 1970s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 57-8.
22 Boettcher, Gifts of Deceit, 56-63.
23 Babcock, ‘Koreagate’.
24 Boettcher, Gifts of Deceit, 96.
25 Committee on Standards of Official Conduct, House of Representatives, Korean Influence Investigation (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), 22.
26 Ibid., 23-57. Figures in parenthesis are estimates of the amount of money each member of Congress received from Park Dong-seon.
27 Boettcher, Gifts of Deceit, 333-5. Although the Senate Select Committee on Ethics found some Senators had received money from Park, no Senator was ever prosecuted or punished. See United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics, Korean Influence Inquiry (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), 63-118.
28 Committee on Standards of Official Conduct, Korean Influence Investigation, 85-6.
29 Subcommittee on International Organizations, Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Investigation of Korean-American Relations, Part 3 (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), 114-38.
30 Il Joon Chung, ‘Yusinchejeui mosungwa hanmigaldeung: minjujuui eomneun gukgaanbo’ [Antinomy of the Yushin System and ROK-U.S. Conflicts: National Security without Democracy], Sahoewa yeoksa [Society and History] 70 (2006): 149-77.
31 Marie Seong-Hak Kim, Constitutional Transition and the Travail of Judges: The Courts of South Korea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 113-9.
32 The US government immediately suspected the involvement of the KCIA . Ambassador to the ROK, Philip Habib, and Director of the Korea Desk at the State Department, Donald Renard, leapt into action without permission from Nixon or Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to save Kim’s life. See Donald A. Ranard, ‘Kim Dae Jung’s Close Call: A Tale of Three Dissidents’, Washington Post, February 23, 2003..
33 Richard Halloran, ‘Seoul’s Students Hold First Protest Since Martial Law’, New York Times, October 3, 1973.
34 Presidential Truth Commission on Suspicious Deaths, A Hard Journey to Justice: First Term Report by the Presidential Truth Commission on Suspicious Deaths of the Republic of Korea (Seoul: Samin Books, 2004), 138-40.
35 Kim, Constitutional Transition, 136-7.
36 Richard Halloran, ‘South Korean Students Protest Anew’, New York Times, April 4, 1974; Presidential Truth Commission on Suspicious Deaths, Hard Journey, 131.
37 Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume E-12, Documents on East and Southeast Asia, 1973-1976, Bradley Lynn Coleman, David Goldman, and David Nickles, eds. (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2010), Document 230.
38 Snyder, From Selma, 93-105.
39 Subcommittees on Asian and Pacific Affairs and International Organizations and Movements, Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, Human Rights in South Korea: Implications for U.S. Policy (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), III.
40 Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights in South Korea and the Philippines, III.
41 Ibid., 180-181.
42 Subcommittee on International Organizations, Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Activities of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency in the United States, Part I (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976); Subcommittee on International Organizations, Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Activities of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency in the United States, Part II (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976).
43 ‘Daetongnyeong teukbyeolseoneon (10wol yusin)’ [Presidential Special Decree (October Yusin)], 1972 (2002).B-0016.03.177-195, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) Diplomatic Archives (DA). I have cited documents based on the system of the MoFA Diplomatic Archives. First, I provide the Romanized file name (using the Revised Romanization of Korean system) followed by an English translation in brackets. Next is the year document was produced (with the year the document was declassified in parentheses). This is followed in order by the roll number, file number, and frame number per the Diplomatic Archives filling system.
44 ‘Miguk eollonui banhangwangye gisa mit daechaek’ [Anti-ROK American Media Reports and Responses], 1976(2006).C-06-0097.14.221-236, MoFA DA.
45 ‘Daemiguk oegyosichaek mit eommugyehoek’ [Foreign Policy Towards the United States and Work Plans], 1976 (2006).C-06-0094.03.003-017, MoFA DA.
46 ‘Daemiguk oegyosichaek mit eommugyehoek’ [Foreign Policy Towards the United States and Work Plans], 1976 (2006).C-06-0094.03.006, MoFA DA.
47 The Foreign Emoluments Clause prohibits any person holding an “Office of Profit or Trust” under the United States from accepting any gifts from foreign countries. However, debates remain whether this applies to members of Congress or not. However, the Federal Election Campaign Act, as amended in 1974, unambiguously prohibits campaign donations by foreign nationals. Other laws relate to accepting bribes and conspiracy. Considering Richard Hana was indicted on 40 felony counts, including bribery and conspiracy, for his dealings with Park Dong-seon, if permissible evidence existed at the time it is likely the members described here would have been indicted as well (T.R. Reid, ‘Hanna Indicted in Korean Bribery Case’, Washington Post, October 14, 1977).
48 ‘Daemiguk uihoe hwaldong gyehoek mit bogo’ [Plans and Reports on Activities towards Congress], 1976 (2006).C-06-0094.02.002-003, MoFA DA.
49 ‘Daemiguk uihoe hwaldong gyehoek mit bogo’ [Plans and Reports on Activities towards Congress], 1976 (2006).C-06-0094.02.005-019, MoFA DA. It is interesting to note that some ROK officials were at least suggesting the implementation of these plans, despite Lee Jae-hyeon having publicized them at the Fraser hearings in 1975 (Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights in South Korea and the Philippines, 180).
50 ‘Daemiguk uihoe hwaldong gyehoek mit bogo’ [Plans and Reports on Activities towards Congress], 1976 (2006).C-06-0094.02.072-074, MoFA DA.
51 MoFA documents are typically declassified after thirty years, with some sensitive material being declassified at an undetermined time thereafter. There is no timetable for the declassification of KCIA documents. The ROK does have an online system for requesting declassification of documents (www.open.go.kr) but requests can be denied on grounds of national security.
52 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in the Congress, Three Volumes (V.1)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.03.032-039, MoFA DA. The title page of the report lists the date as April 23, 1974, but the content of the report makes it clear that the report was produced in 1975.
53 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeo6gwon’ [Hearings on Korea in the House of Representatives, Six Volumes (V.1)], 1974 (2004).C-0070.34.004-005, MoFA DA.
54 Boettcher, Gifts of Deceit, 191.
55 ‘Miguk uihoeuiwon banghan’ [US Members of Congress Visit Korea], 1974 (2004).C-0080.02.139, MoFA DA.
56 ‘Miguk uihoeuiwon banghan. jeon2gwon (V.1 1-8wol)’ [US Members of Congress Visit Korea. Two Volumes (V.1 January-August)], 1975 (2005).C-0092.26.137, MoFA DA.
57 Boettcher, Gifts of Deceit, 263-266. Also see Charles R. Babcock, ‘House Halts Derwinski Investigation’, Washington Post, October 15, 1978.
58 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeo6gwon’ [Hearings on Korea in the House of Representatives, Six Volumes (V.1)], 1974 (2004).C-0070.34.113, MoFA DA.
59 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon6gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in the House of Representatives, Six Volumes (V.1)], 1974 (2004).C-0070.34.113, 236-240, MoFA DA. Walker did not testify in person in 1974 and instead mailed a statement which was entered into the record.
60 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon6gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in the House of Representatives, Six Volumes (V.1)], 1974 (2004).C-0070.34.249, MoFA DA. Rev. Moffett testified that he had been serving as a Catholic missionary in since 1958 and highlighted the danger of a ‘hot war’ breaking out again on the Korean Peninsula if Congress ended military aid to the ROK (Subcommittees on Asian and Pacific Affairs and International Organizations and Movements, Human Rights in South Korea, 101-3.).
61 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon6gwon (V.5)’ [Hearings on Korea in the House of Representatives, Six Volumes (V.5)], 1974 (2004).C-0071.01.117, MoFA DA. Thomas J. Coolidge was a prominent figure in US-Korea trade relations, but more importantly was the chairman of a fundraising committee at Harvard University’s East Asian Research Center. He was later accused of having provided testimony favourable to the ROK government in exchange for donations being given by the ROK government to Harvard (Benjamin A. Engel, ‘For the Sake of Appearances: The Case of South Korean Authoritarian Image Management in the 1970s,’ The Korean Journal of International Studies 21, no. 1 (2023): 155-6.). Michael and Walker were part of a wider group of American academics who considered assisting the ROK government with its image management campaign in the 1970s (Engel, ‘For the Sake of Appearances’, 157-61.). MacDonald was a well-known Korea expert, but there is no evidence he colluded with the ROK government despite his testimony being somewhat positive.
62 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.2)’ [Hearings on Korea in the Congress, Three Volumes (V.2)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.04.254, MoFA DA; ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.2)’ [Hearings on Korea in the Congress, Three Volumes (V.2)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.04.253, MoFA DA. Rev. McFadden testified that he had been serving as a missionary in Korea since 1957. Among his statements, he claimed that the People’s Revolutionary Party (PRP), a supposed group of North Korea-back revolutionaries in South Korea which progressive missionaries such as George Ogle had stated was a ROK government fabrication and merely a tool for frightening the Korean people with stories of imminent communist invasion, ‘definitely did exist, and probably still does’ (Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights in South Korea and the Philippines, 247). The PRP was later deemed to indeed be a fabrication, and the ROK government provided compensation to the familes of the eight men who were tortured and executed for their alleged involvement in the PRP (Hankyoreh, ‘Families of Eight Wrongfully Executed Political Prisoners Awarded Compensation, August 22, 2007.).
63 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in the Congress, Three Volumes (V.1)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.03.258, MoFA DA; Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights in South Korea and the Philippines, 14.
64 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon6gwon (V.5)’ [Hearings on Korea in the House of Representatives, Six Volumes (V.5)], 1974 (2004).C-0071.01.033-034, MoFA DA.
65 Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights in South Korea and the Philippines, 153-6, 161, 168-9.
66 ‘Miguk hawon hanguk ingwonmunjee gwanhan cheongmunhoe, 1974. jeon6gwon (V.4 1cha cheongmunhoe(I) jinhaengsanghwang)’ [Hearings in the House of Representatives on the Human Rights issue in the ROK, 1974. Six Volumes (V.4 Progress of the First Hearing (I))], 1974 (2020).2020-0145.12.087, MoFA DA.
67 ‘Miguk hawon hanguk ingwonmunjee gwanhan cheongmunhoe, 1974. jeon6gwon (V.4 1cha cheongmunhoe(I) jinhaengsanghwang)’ [Hearings in the House of Representatives on the Human Rights issue in the ROK, 1974. Six Volumes (V.4 Progress of the First Hearing (I))], 1974 (2020).2020-0145.12.092-103, MoFA DA.
68 ‘Miguk hawon hanguk ingwonmunjee gwanhan cheongmunhoe, 1974. jeon6gwon (V.4 1cha cheongmunhoe(I) jinhaengsanghwang)’ [Hearings in the House of Representatives on the Human Rights issue in the ROK, 1974. Six Volumes (V.4 Progress of the First Hearing (I))], 1974 (2020).2020-0145.12.104, MoFA DA.
69 Subcommittees on Asian and Pacific Affairs and International Organizations and Movements, Human Rights in South Korea, 77-8.
70 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in the Congress, Three Volumes (V.1)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.03.293, MoFA DA.
71 Father Jim Sinnott, ‘Now You Are Free to Speak Out’, in More than Witnesses: How a Small Group of Missionaries Aided Korea’s Democratic Revolution, ed. Jim Stentzel (Mequon: Nightengale Press, 2008), 375-410.
72 Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights in South Korea and the Philippines, 82-5.
73 Ibid., 87-8; 201-2.
74 Ibid., 213-8.
75 Ibid., 216.
76 ‘Migugui daeoewonjobeop (sugwonbeop) je4gwon (V.2 1974.7-9)’ [U.S. Foreign Assistance Act (Amendment) 4 Volumes (V.2 July-September 1974)], 1974 (2004).G-0035.05.129-130, MoFA DA.
77 ‘Migugui daeoewonjobeop (sugwonbeop) je4gwon (V.2 1974.7-9)’ [U.S. Foreign Assistance Act (Amendment) 4 Volumes (V.2 July-September 1974)], 1974 (2004).G-0035.05.131-134, MoFA DA.
78 ‘Migugui daeoewonjobeop (sugwonbeop) je4gwon (V.2 1974.7-9)’ [U.S. Foreign Assistance Act (Amendment) 4 Volumes (V.2 July-September 1974)], 1974 (2004).G-0035.05.393, MoFA DA.
79 ‘Migugui daeoewonjobeop (sugwonbeop) je4gwon (V.2 1974.7-9)’ [U.S. Foreign Assistance Act (Amendment) 4 Volumes (V.2 July-September 1974)], 1974 (2004).G-0035.05.162, MoFA DA.
80 ‘FY 76-77 Migugui anbowonjobeop, jeon7gwon (V.2 FY 76 sugwonbeop I-1975.4-12)’ [FY 76-77 U.S. Military Assistance Legislation, Seven Volumes (V.1 FY 76 Authorization Act I-April-December 1975)], 1976 (2006).G-06-0044.03.463, MoFA DA.
81 ‘FY 76-77 Migugui anbowonjobeop, jeon7gwon (V.2 FY 76 sugwonbeop II-1976.1-5)’ [FY 76-77 U.S. Military Assistance Legislation, Seven Volumes (V.2 FY 76 Authorization Act II January-May 1976)], 1976 (2006).G-06-0044.04.006, MoFA DA.
82 ‘FY 76-77 Migugui anbowonjobeop, jeon7gwon (V.2 FY 76 sugwonbeop I-1975.4-12)’ [FY 76-77 U.S. Military Assistance Legislation, Seven Volumes (V.1 FY 76 Authorization Act I-April-December 1975)], 1976 (2006).G-06-0044.03.382, MoFA DA.
83 Subcommittee on Future Foreign Policy Research and Development, Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Shifting Balance of Power in Asia: Implications for Future U.S. Policy (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), 93-137.
84 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1 hawon gukjegwangyewiwonhoe 1-4wol)’ [Hearings on Korea in the Congress, Five Volumes (V.4 House Committee on International Relations January-April)], 1976 (2006).C-06-095.04.032-033, MoFA DA.
85 ‘Hanguk gungnaemunjewa gwallyeonhan miguk uihoe uiwonui seohan’ [Letters from Members of the Congress regarding Domestic Problems in the ROK], 1976 (2006).B-06-0026.09.144, MoFA DA.
86 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in the Congress, Three Volumes (V.1)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.03.270, MoFA DA.
87 Embassy Seoul to Department of State, Telegram 3789, May 29, 1975, 1975SEOUL3789, Central Foreign Policy Files, 1973-79/Released Telegrams (Access Demand), RG59: General Records of the Department of State, National Archives (accessed March 25, 2019).
88 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon6gwon (V.2)’ [House of Representatives Hearings on the ROK, Six Volumes (V.2)], 1974 (2004).C-0070.35.134, 136, MoFA DA.
89 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon6gwon (V.2)’ [House of Representatives Hearings on the ROK, Six Volumes (V.2)], 1974 (2004).C-0070.35.132, MoFA DA.
90 ‘FY 76-77 Migugui anbowonjobeop, jeon7gwon (V.2 FY 76 sugwonbeop I-1975.4-12)’ [FY 76-77 U.S. Military Assistance Legislation, Seven Volumes (V.1 FY 76 Authorization Act I-April-December 1975)], 1976 (2006).G-06-0044.03.355, MoFA DA.
91 ‘Jeong Il-gwon gukoeuijang miguk, seogu, mit ilbon sunbang, 1975.4.30-5.21’ [Speaker of the ROK National Assembly Jeong Il-gwon’s visits to the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, April 30 – May 21, 1975], 1975 (2005).C-0090.04.124, MoFA DA.
92 Park Chung Hee used the fall of Saigon and Kim Il Sung’s visit to China in April 1975 as an opportunity to seal his control after a year and a half of vigorous protests. On May 13, 1975, Park issued PEM 9, the most stringent and comprehensive of his PEMs (Sohn, Authoritarianism and Opposition, 83-5). Paul Chang shows that the number of protest events decreased significantly in 1976 following these events as well (Chang, Protest Dialectics, 41).
93 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in Congress, Three Volumes (V.1)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.03.268, MoFA DA.
94 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in Congress, Three Volumes (V.1)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.03.270, MoFA DA.
95 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon6gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in the House of Representatives, Six Volumes (V.1)], 1974 (2004).C-0070.34.068, MoFA DA.
96 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon5gwon (V.5 sangwon)’ [Hearings on Korea in Congress, Five Volumes (V.5 Senate)], 1976 (2006).C-06-095.05.067, MoFA DA.
97 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in Congress, Three Volumes (V.1)], 1975 (2005).C-0082.03.068, MoFA DA.
98 Embassy Seoul to Department of State, Telegram 2934, April 25, 1975, 1975SEOUL2934, Central Foreign Policy Files, 1973-79/Released Telegrams (Access Demand), RG59: General Records of the Department of State, National Archives (accessed March 25, 2019).
99 ‘Miguk hawon hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon6gwon (V.5)’ [Hearings on Korea in the House of Representatives, Six Volumes (V.5)], 1974 (2004).C-0071.01.005, MoFA DA; ‘Miguk hawon hanguk ingwonmunjee gwanhan cheongmunhoe, 1974. jeon6gwon (V.6 2cha cheongmunhoe)’ [Hearings in the House of Representatives on the Human Rights issue in the ROK, 1974. Six Volumes (V.6 Second Hearing)], 1974 (2020).2020-0145.13.005, MoFA DA.
100 ‘Miguk uihoe hangukgwangye cheongmunhoe, jeon3gwon (V.1)’ [Hearings on Korea in Congress, Three Volumes (V.1)], 1975.C-0082.03.254-256, MoFA.
101 ‘FY 76-77 Migugui anbowonjobeop, jeon7gwon (V.1 FY 76 sugwonbeop I-1975.4-12)’ [FY 76-77 U.S. Military Assistance Legislation, Seven Volumes (V.1 FY 76 Authorization Act I April-December 1975)], 1976.G-06-0044.03.277, MoFA; ‘Juhanmigun cheolsu (gamchuk) jeon7gwon (V.4 7-12wol)’ [Withdrawal (Reduction) of U.S. Forces Korea, 7 Volumes (V.4 July-December)], 1975.G0040.18.030-031, MoFA.
102 Embassy Seoul to Department of State, Telegram 4855, July 2, 1975, 1975SEOUL4855, Central Foreign Policy Files, 1973-79/Released Telegrams (Access Demand), RG59: General Records of the Department of State, National Archives (accessed March 25, 2019).
103 Donald M. Fraser Papers, Korea, 1975, Folder 1 (149.G.9.7B), Minnesota Historical Society.
104 Ibid.
105 ‘FY 76-77 Migugui anbowonjobeop, 1975-76. jeon7gwon (V.4 FY 77 sugwonbeop II-1976.5)’ [U.S. Military Assistance Legislation, Seven Volumes (V.4 FY 77 Authorization Act II-May 1976), 1976 (2021).2021.0177.09.225-295, MoFA DA.
106 ‘FY 76-77 Migugui anbowonjobeop, 1975-76. jeon7gwon (V.4 FY 77 sugwonbeop II-1976.5)’ [U.S. Military Assistance Legislation, Seven Volumes (V.4 FY 77 Authorization Act II-May 1976), 1976 (2021).2021.0177.09.247, MoFA DA.
107 ‘Daemiguk uihoe hwaldong gyehoek mit bogo’ [Plans and Reports on Activities towards Congress], 1976 (2006).C-06-0094.02.007, MoFA DA.
108 For one example of research on authoritarian image management, see Alexander Dukalskis, Making the World Safe for Dictatorship (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021).