Journal of adventure education and outdoor learning: special issue: digital technology and networked spaces in outdoor learning

Developing a special issue

The purpose behind this special issue was the ongoing and rapid advancement of technological devices and broader networked architectures. For us, these include mobile technologies such as iPads, networked spaces like Instagram, and broader digital infrastructures like super-fast Broadband. The educational, social, and practice-based contexts of adventure education and outdoor learning are undeniably being influenced by these broader processes of technological change. Alongside this, our motivation came from the acknowledgement that little consensus is present in either literature or practice concerning the place, role, and (non) use of technology when taking learning out-of-doors. Of course, the work of Cuthbertson et al. (2004) and others (e.g. Beames, 2017; DeHudy et al., 2021) have provided a starting point, but we contest there is much more to be done (Hills & Thomas, 2020, 2021; Reed, 2021, 2022, 2024; van Kraalingen, 2021, 2022).

In light of this, we sought articles for this special issue that may shed much-needed light on the complexity and entanglement of digital technologies and networked spaces in our everyday lives, and increasingly in the processes of outdoor learning. We further hoped to receive submissions that would provide a more thorough understanding of the place and management of digital and mobile technologies within the field(s) of adventure education and outdoor learning. The papers included in this issue point at many significant opportunities and challenges connected to digital technologies and networked spaces in this context. The articles herein offer a diversity of perspectives and can make a valuable contribution to outdoor learning research and practice from a variety of international contexts. We hope that this issue will generate continuing dialogue and research into the complex, technological, natures of contemporary outdoor learning and pedagogy. We would like to extend our thanks and appreciation to all those who submitted articles, the reviewers of their articles, and the editorial board for their ongoing work.

We now discuss the key points from each paper in turn and provide a summary of collective themes.

Paper 1, ‘Digital Technology and networked spaces in outdoor education: Reflections upon presenting at an international webinar’ (Imre van Kraalingen, Dave Hills, Jack Reed, Simon Beames and Brendon Munge).

This paper draws on a webinar on digital technology and networked spaces in outdoor education, where three researchers (the editors of this special issue) presented their work through responses to two discussion statements: First, ‘the use of digital technology in outdoor education is fundamentally contrary to all its values.’ Second, ‘if we accept that digital technology is embedded in outdoor education, what do we know about its potential? And what are key areas to explore more deeply?’ There was no plan to produce a research output from the webinar, however, the organisers’ basic analysis of the webinar’s front channel and backchannel revealed areas of the conversation that may merit targeted empirical attention. Three principal themes emerged from participants’ responses during the webinar: the need to move beyond binary thinking; the importance of considering digital technology in regard to specific learning objectives and contexts; and to inform oneself about the affordances of digital technology, while thinking critically about its applications.

Paper 2, ‘Predicting the future of experiential and adventurous learning in the Metaverse’ (Simon Priest).

This highly contemporary paper defines the metaverse and its many uses and describes the metaverse as ‘an Internet-based and simulated 3-D digital world, where users interact and immerse themselves in this replicated setting through Social Media, Augmented Reality, and Virtual Reality.’ It then draws parallels to adventure and discusses this definition in a variety of contexts. At the core of the paper, and why it was chosen, is its capacity to provide a prediction of the future based on the present and the past and discusses the drawbacks of this process and its outcomes. With very little else in the literature at the time of writing, the paper includes the presentation of eight key questions surrounding the metaverse and education. We think these could be important for the field to consider moving forward. In particular, questions such as ‘Does it (metaverse) include and combine exercise, nature, risk taking, or conflict resolution elements?’ and ‘Does it (metaverse) involve multiple senses and sensory learning?’ provide us with some foundational considerations. Finally, the paper concludes with a few observations and expectations around the likelihood and problem of the metaverse replacing adventure and the ways in which we may approach these discussions in the future.

Paper 3, ‘Using the Taoist philosophy of Ziran-Wuwei to reconcile the nature-technology dichotomy in outdoor intercultural learning: A case study of an ocean-crossing sail-training expedition’ (Yujun Xu).

The paper provides an alternative lens on how to approach and assess the role of technologies in outdoor learning. Drawing on an intercultural EU-exchange sail-training voyage, the Taoist philosophy of Ziran (nature) and Wuwei (inaction) are employed as epistemological standpoints which seek to extend beyond the Western ideologies which dominate discussions on technology in outdoor learning and other fields in education and beyond. Through an ethnographically-situated approach, findings indicate that outdoor educators seek to minimise participant uses of mobile technologies when these uses do not support the pedagogical objectives of an activity. Aligning with van Kraalingen (2021), it is recommended that creative, collaborative, and interactive tasks are employed that place focus beyond mobile technologies. In doing so, it is concluded, educators may return learners to nature and live in the present.

Paper 4, ‘The ethics of mountain adventure education: The tragic and sublime on screen’ (James MacAllister).

The paper is centred on the role of film in understanding mountain experiences in new ways. With specific attention for environmental tragedy and the sublime, the article explores the ethical pedagogical potential of two documentaries that are situated in the outdoor adventure setting of the mountains. The paper aims to deeply understand and discuss the similarities and differences between environmental tragedy and sublime experiences in nature and how these are represented in documentary films. Starting with the film Mountain, the author considers how the documentary showcases the allure of the mountains and sheds light on moral issues associated with adventurers’ search for the sublime. At the heart of this paper, there is a unique exploration of how documentary films can be of pedagogical value for adventure education. The findings show that documentary films can open up questions about the moral and ethical frameworks that mountain adventurers have and should have. While the article underlines that screened experiences of adventures are different in quality from the sublime sensory experiences in the natural context, it is argued that such experiences should not necessarily be considered inferior.

Paper 5, ‘No connectivity, better connections: Teenagers’ experiences of a phone-free summer camp in the United States’ (Charlotte Megret).

This paper takes one of the most divisive student digital devices (the smart phone) and tackles the discussion head on. The case study highlights the complex relationship between teenagers, phones, and residential outdoor environmental education in the context of a phone-free summer camp in the United States. It was conducted at Canoe Island French Camp (CIFC) over six weeks and gathered evidence from individual interviews, focus group interviews, and unstructured conversations. Similar to Hills and Thomas (2020), the paper initially recognises the affordances of smartphones in the field but, uniquely, this paper targets the students as opposed to the facilitators perspective on smartphone use, which makes it a standout piece of the special issue. The main findings of the study were: (1) participants expressed overwhelmingly positive attitudes towards the experience, especially regarding social interactions. (2) This positive experience was perceived to only be possible at CIFC, where an engaging programme, and a strong and safe community, supported participants in their phone-free experience. (3) As a result of (2), teenagers expressed concerns about applying their experience outside of camp. We feel that these findings highlight an often ‘assumed’ transfer of experience outside the summer camp and highlights the importance of assessing data from young people when designing and evaluating outdoor education programmes.

Paper 6, ‘Protecting the nature within: Framing digital-downtime for student learning through Western and Indigenous approaches’ (Chris North and Matiu Tai Ratima).

This paper centres on the question: ‘If an educator considers excluding digital technology for a period of time, how might they explore such an initiative with their students?’ We think this question is of significant importance given Hodkinson (2017) described online spaces as being ‘always on’ and as being fundamentally important in the construction and maintenance of contemporary youth cultures. Drawing on both Western and Māori approaches to protecting nature, the authors consider what role engagement ‘with nature’ and ‘as nature’ may be employed as intentional strategies to support learners in considering digital (dis)connectedness in their day-to-day lives. We were particularly drawn to the following question: ‘what is a networked spaces rāhui? and what could it offer educators and students?’ Here, ‘rāhui’ refers to the purposeful prohibition of a certain activity in order to preserve the future wellbeing of people and/or nature. By extending this to networked spaces, the authors provide a Māori indigenous standpoint on how we may approach digital downtime in outdoor education with young people. Extending further, a networked spaces rāhui may ‘promote spiritual renewal and refreshment which is a key aspect of Matariki (the Māori new year celebration).’ In many ways, this generates a greater awareness of the spiritual benefits that may take place when nature-human interactions are not mediated by and/or through a screen.

Paper 7, ‘An exploration of children’s experiences of the use of digital technology in forest schools’ (Ange Garden).

This paper explores the use of iPad cameras to enhance Forest School practice. Working with 32 Key Stage 2 children selected from two UK primary schools, unstructured interviews explored the children’s feelings and meanings associated with the images captured in the Forest School environment using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). We have included this paper to bridge the discussion between digital technology and the literature around Forest Schools. For many, there may be an expectation that a Forest School does not use technology with its students and this study unpacks this assumption with some excellent context and literature. In particular, the study highlights how photographs can be understood within the themes of ‘play with technology,’ ‘soft fascination,’ and ‘place attachment,’ all of which are inherent in the Forest School ethos. This paper bridges an important gap in the literature and future research could build on the findings presented in this article.

Paper 8, ‘Digital technology and environmental pedagogies in tertiary outdoor education: Linking digital spaces to more-than-human places’ (Scott Jukes and Jonathan Lynch).

This paper explores the idea that we are entangled with technology and that this understanding is congruent with the emerging theories of new materialism; theories that are increasingly influencing research and pedagogy in outdoor learning contexts. It argues that new materialism is a useful way to conceptualise the complex nature of digital technology in Outdoor and environmental education, and then goes on to show some of the ways the field has tried to embrace technology as entangled in practice. The authors use the terms ‘lines’ and ‘knots’ to denote the entangled nature of technology, life, and education. They enact these concepts through the sharing of ‘lines of theory’ and ‘knots of practice’ and finish with remarks on how educators might work with new materialisms and digital technologies outdoors and outline a range of possible implications. The paper offers readers insight into an emerging theoretical stance on the position of technology in outdoor education contexts which may be built upon and assessed in future studies.

Paper 9, ‘The impact of artificial intelligence on adventure education and outdoor learning: International perspectives’ (Chris North, David Hills, Pat Maher, Jelena Farkić, Vinicius Zeilmann, Sue Waite, Takako Takano, Heather Prince, Kirsti Pedersen Gurholt, Nkatha Muthomi, Daniel Njenga, Te Hurinui Karaka-Clarke, Susan Houge Mackenzie and Graham French).

This is a composite article that brings together views from the editorial board of the Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning. It focuses on three key themes encompassing global perspectives on Artificial Intelligence (AI) in adventure education and/or outdoor learning: Authors from ten countries, including Australia, Brazil, Canada, England, Japan, Kenya, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, and Wales, provide a diverse range of insights on how AI is influencing these contexts. This international viewpoint highlights how different regions are adapting to and integrating AI into these educational sectors. The paper delves into the various impacts and opportunities presented by AI in adventure education and outdoor learning. This includes how AI is being utilised by professionals, researchers, and educators in these fields. The discussion also extends to understanding AI’s role in enhancing the experience of being outdoors, and its interplay with Indigenous knowledge, providing a comprehensive view of AI’s multifaceted influence. Alongside this, the paper considers how educators, practitioners, researchers, and managers in adventurous outdoor learning spaces can creatively and cautiously embrace the technological revolution brought about by AI. In summary, this paper presents a multifaceted exploration of AI’s role in adventure education and outdoor learning, showcasing international perspectives, discussing the technology’s impact and potential, alongside encouraging a thoughtful, innovative response to these technological advancements.

Identified themes across the papers

Having evaluated the scope and nature of the papers in this special issue, we have identified a series of themes which we believe encapsulate the contributions presented here. These thematic constructions have been developed through collaboration between the three special issue editors and have been carefully generated throughout the development of the special issue. Of course, there are many gaps, but we feel that highlighting these themes may provide the field with a set of key foundations within which future research may choose to situate itself. Our six themes are displayed below:

Theme A: Technology and networked spaces enhancing outdoor learning

Theme B: The limitations of digital technology and the benefits of non-use

Theme C: The western domination of technological research

Theme D: Philosophical perspectives that facilitate decision-making processes

Theme E: Student perspectives that inform future decisions

Theme F: The ethics of integrating technology and future perspectives

Whilst we recognise there are many absences to explore in relation to digital technology and networked spaces in outdoor adventurous education, we also acknowledge that there is crossover between these themes and suggest they may be treated as a collective. In doing so, we hope the themes we have constructed provide pause for thought, as well as stimulating future discussion, research, and practice.

Conclusions and overall comments

As editors, our sense is that the papers presented in this special issue pose more questions than answers. With nine papers across a breadth of outdoor contexts and applications, we hope the articles here provide those engaged with the development and delivery of adventurous outdoor education a touchstone from which we may construct informed, data-driven, approaches to the place and role of technology in these spaces. However, what we have observed across the papers is the construction of a consistent narrative on the double-edged sword as described by Cuthbertson et al. (2004) two decades ago. Whilst we as editors have called into question the efficacy of such polarised thinking around the use of technology in outdoor education (van Kraalingen et al., 2024, this issue), the evidence presented throughout the special issue implies that the previously held binary is still present. That said, we think the papers here provide critical scholars and practitioners with new and insightful ways through which to approach future discussions on what role and impact technology may have when educating out-of-doors. Alongside these papers, we also note that the forthcoming Routledge Handbook of Mobile Technology, Social Media and the Outdoors from Beames and Maher (2024) will continue these discussions. This may be particularly important in relation to the early detection of emerging technological trends (e.g. artificial intelligence) and the ways in which the field may develop critical and open responses which facilitate a method of ‘keeping up’ with the ongoing evolution of networked cultures.

With the above in mind, our sense is that, as with many papers on the intersection of technology, society, and education, this special issue will have a ‘shelf life.’ The length of this shelf life is yet to be determined, but with the ongoing rise of artificial intelligence and developments in augmented reality, we believe that there is much more work to do. This leaves us reflecting on a similar special issue in the Leisure Studies journal (Silk et al., 2016). Borrowing their stance on what impact ‘holding on’ to a pre-digital perspective on society could have for their field, we contend there may be similar learnings from this special issue for adventurous outdoor education. Indeed, we may risk our constructions and understandings of youth experiences in the outdoors becoming oversimplified if we overlook the technologically situated and networked lives of any group of learners. That is not to say that we must blindly accept the role and influence of technology and networked spaces in our practice and scholarship. Instead, we think this encourages us all to develop a sophisticated theoretical and empirical foundation which privileges the voices and experiences of all those who co-deliver and experience adventurous outdoor education in a contemporary technological society. Such a foundation may be foregrounded in the papers here and offers the field a lens through which to continue these discussions.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jack Reed

Jack Reed is a Postdoctoral Researcher on the ESRC-funded Nature Recovery and Regional Development (NaRReD) project at the University of Exeter. His previous research has focussed on young people’s constructions of nature through networked spaces in residential outdoor education contexts. In the NaRReD project, Jack’s research will measure and track the impact of nature recovery on local economies and scale this up for wider learning and policy development.

Imre van Kraalingen

Imre van Kraalingen is currently working on her PhD at the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences. Her research aims to gain a deeper insight into educators’ and students’ perspectives on and experiences of the use of mobile technologies in outdoor studies programs in Norway. She further seeks to explore the mediating impact of mobile technologies on teaching and learning experiences in the outdoors.

Dave Hills

David Hills is a lecturer of Outdoor Education at the University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia. He is qualified in all major fieldwork work disciplines and his research areas in outdoor education include technology, outdoor curriculum design and transnational outdoor studies.