Exploring key informants’ perceptions of weather-modified recess

ABSTRACT

Outdoor recess presents an opportunity for children to be physically active, socialize with their peers, and spend time in nature. Inclement weather may detract from these activities. The purpose of this study is to explore how teachers and administrators adapt their school day during inclement weather and how it may impact the wellbeing of students. Ten elementary school teachers and administrators with an average of 10 years of experience were interviewed. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using content analysis. Key informants reported that approximately 26 days of recess per year are modified to be indoors due to inclement weather. Two key themes were identified: consequences of indoor recess and modifiable barriers to wellbeing activities in inclement weather. Indoor recess reduces students’ opportunities for physical activity, experiencing nature, and socializing with peers. It is pertinent to children’s wellbeing that these opportunities are maximized throughout the school year.

KEYWORDS:

• Weather
• recess
• children
• school

Introduction

Schools are recognized as key institutions for promoting children and youth’s overall health and wellbeing (Pulimeno et al., 2020). Specifically, school recess presents an opportunity for children to play. Play is recognized as one of the fundamental rights of the child by the United Nations (Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1990). During play at recess, children can be physically active, socialize with their peers, and spend time in nature, all of which contribute to their wellbeing (Jacobs, 2017). Depending on the jurisdiction, recess occurrences and duration will differ, but a common example in Canadian schools would include having recess twice a day, with each break lasting around 25 minutes (Rainbow District School Board, 2022). In the Finnish school system, lengths of recesses also vary. In grades one through nine, Finnish schools usually have two to four recess periods of 10–15 minutes after each 45–90 minute lesson along with one longer recess period of 30 minutes for lunch and other activities (Haapala et al., 2014). On average, USA elementary schools schedule students to have 27 minutes of recess each day (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015). Students typically go outside with their schoolmates (i.e. students from their class and other classes) and are afforded opportunities to play using playground equipment, open fields, blacktops, or play with different equipment like balls or jump ropes. Normally, students are given the autonomy to decide and organize their games with minimal adult supervision or interference within the overarching school rules. However, an expanding avenue of research suggests that weather (i.e. extreme cold, rainfall, snowfall, wind, and heat) can force modifications of outdoor recess if the outdoors is deemed unfavourable by school administrators (Hyndman & Vanos, 2023; Rasi et al., 2017). A review of policies, practices, and procedures on extreme weather and the Canadian context found that schools shorten or keep students inside during recess if the temperature drops below −20°C to −40°C or if there is rain, thunderstorms, lightning, hail, or extreme winds (Button & Martin, 2023). Similar results were found on a study of schools in Maine with school recess being cancelled when temperatures ranged from −7°C to −18°C (Jacobs, 2017). Other weather systems were not explored in this study. It is pertinent to understand the impact of weather on recess and schoolchildren.

The World Health Organization (2022) recommends that children and adolescents aged 5–17 years do at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity aerobic activity per day and muscle and bone strengthening activities at least three days a week. According to these guidelines, over 80% of the world’s adolescent population is insufficiently physically active (World Health Organization, 2022). Physical activity during childhood is associated with a multitude of physical, behavioural, and psychological health benefits (Biddle et al., 2019; Carson et al., 2016; Sallis et al., 2000; Tremblay et al., 2011). For example, physical activity during childhood helps protect against risk factors associated with certain diseases, including higher body fat, higher cholesterol and blood pressure, and the development of insulin resistance (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010; Poitras et al., 2016). In addition to physical health benefits, physical activity participation during childhood is associated with improved academic performance and better psychosocial outcomes, including reduced anxiety, less depressive symptoms, and greater self-esteem (Álvarez-Bueno et al., 2017; Biddle et al., 2019). School recess presents an opportunity for children to be physically active during the school day. Elementary students in the USA accumulate 17% of their school day moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during school recess, despite only accounting for 4.3% of the school day (Ridgers et al., 2011). However, when recess is modified to be indoors, students are afforded fewer opportunities for physical activity. An examination of schools in Maine, USA found only 2/3rds of schools in the study provided students with an opportunity to be active during indoor recess (Jacobs, 2017). Of the activities mentioned in this study by Jacobs, most of the games or types of play discussed would be considered light physical activity meaning indoor recess could lead to a major loss in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Similar results on opportunities for activities during indoor recess was found in the School Health Policies and Practices Study of 2014 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015).

School recess allows children to spend time in nature (The Recess Project & Physical and Health Education Canada, 2020). A systematic review by Fyfe-Johnson et al. (2021) found a positive relationship between nature contact and children’s cognitive, behavioural, and mental health. In cases of weather-modified or cancelled outdoor recess, students may spend almost seven consecutive hours inside.

Recess has also been recognized as being vital to children’s social development. Recess is one of the only times in the school day when children have the ability to organize their own games and socialize with peers in different classes (The Recess Project & Physical and Health Education Canada, 2020). Recess provides routine peer-to-peer interaction, the cumulative effects of which can positively influence the way children relate to each other, the kinds of individuals they will become, and the kind of society they will create (The Recess Project & Physical and Health Education Canada, 2020). This unstructured recreational time can support children to work together, adapt to different scenarios, and explore different activities (Thiessen et al., 2013). Some of these opportunities and associated benefits might be restricted during indoor recess as certain schools require students to stay in their homeroom and the physical structure of the classroom makes it difficult to organize certain types of physical activities or games. Since the COVID-19 pandemic there has been a renewed call for action in ensuring children have regular recess breaks especially since school-based spaces provide an arena for quality interaction between peers (Global Recess Alliance et al., 2022).

From the existing literature, weather seems to have an impact on recess. Button et al. (2020) found a 14-second increase in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity for each 1° Celsius increase in temperature in students aged 8–14 years in rural Canada. A study on students 9–10 years old from the United Kingdom showed that rainfall had a negative impact on physical activity (Harrison et al., 2011). Some qualitative research has also established that weather impacts physical activity during recess. Hyndman and Telford (2015) add that students in an Australian school aged 9–13 believe that weather was a factor that influenced physical activity during recess. Children attend school for a large percentage of the year and, depending on the country, may be exposed to extreme weather conditions throughout. With recess providing opportunities for physical activity, time in nature, and social development, it is pertinent to understand the teacher and administrative concerns of letting children outside in various weather conditions. The results of this study will inform decision and policymakers on strategies to improve recess in inclement weather.

Methods

Participants

A purposive and snowball sample was used to recruit teachers and administrators for this study who had experience teaching or being part of the administration team in elementary schools. For this study elementary school was defined as children aged 4–14 or Kindergarten to grade 8. Initially, one of the authors used contacts from their elementary teaching career to select teachers or administrators that had experience with weather and recess. Next, participants were asked if they could recommend another teacher or administrator from a different area that had experience with weather and recess. Data were collected from March 2022 to June 2022 through semi-structured interviews over Zoom In total, 10 key informants (i.e. teachers and administrators) were interviewed. Informants included two men and eight women who held positions of principal, vice-principal, and classroom teacher in elementary schools. On average, participants had 10 years of experience in education. Three participants were currently in administration as a vice principal or principal and seven were currently working as classroom teachers. See Table 1 for participant information.

Table 1. Key informants’ responses to interview question on how many days of indoor recess per school year.

Key Informant	Days of Indoor Recess	Role	Current Grade Level	Gender	Years in Education
Participant 1	20	Principal	K-8	Woman	19
Participant 2	10	Teacher	Grade 2	Woman	11
Participant 3	20–30*	Teacher	Grade 4	Woman	10
Participant 4	9	Vice Principal	K-8	Woman	9
Participant 5	30	Vice Principal-Teacher	Grades 3–8	Woman	11
Participant 6	40–50*	Teacher	Grade 3	Man	10
Participant 7	20	Teacher	Grade 2	Woman	3
Participant 8	20	Teacher	Grade 7	Woman	Several**
Participant 9	10–20*	Teacher	Grade 7	Man	16
Participant 10	70	Teacher	Grades 3/4	Woman	4

*When a range was provided the mean was computed and used to calculate the average number of indoor recess.

**This participant was excluded when calculating the average years in education for the sample.

Instrumentation

Interview questions included general information questions (i.e. current position, experience in the field, gender identity, geographic area, and age) and various questions on recess, weather, and children’s behaviour. Some of the initial questions on recess, weather and children included, ‘approximately how many days of outdoor recess are modified or cancelled in a typical school year due to inclement weather?,’ ‘what typically happens during an indoor recess?,’ ‘what are the biggest barriers to giving students opportunities to be active during indoor recess?,’ ‘have you seen any strategies to allow students to socialize with students from other classes in a less structured environment?.’

Procedure

Initially, the research team aimed to conduct 13 interviews, but repeated ideas began to emerge after interview eight. Prior to participating in the study, participants were sent a letter of information, were read a statement on ethical procedures in this study, and all participants gave oral consent that included the use of anonymous direct quotes prior to participation in this study. Semi-structured interviews were selected to allow key stakeholders opportunities to explore thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and practices on a particular topic. Interviews were arranged for a mutually agreeable time and ranged in length from 30–45 minutes. Ethics for this project was submitted and approved by University of Winnipeg Human Ethics Research Board.

Data analysis

The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using content analysis. The lead author familiarized themself with the data by listening and reading through the interviews and transcripts. Then, the researcher examined the data to develop codes and subthemes based on recurring ideas, phrases, and sentences (Nowell et al., 2017). A codebook was created from the subthemes that were selected from recurring ideas. The codes were confirmed by a second researcher that had listened to each interview. The codes were then further grouped into broader themes (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). Findings were discussed with a third research team member for added rigor (Johnson et al., 2020).

The lead author, CO, was raised in a military family across the Prairies, where extremely cold temperatures are prevalent. He is currently enrolled in a university pre-service teaching program. He interprets the results based on his experience playing in extreme weather and his new understanding of recess as a teacher. BB grew up in Northern Ontario and lives in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Both areas experience cold winter weather. BB has over 10 years of teaching experience teaching students from ages 4–18. He currently teaches in a pre-service education program, and part of his research focuses on the impact of extreme weather on children’s wellbeing. He interprets the results based on these experiences with an overall goal of creating knowledge that can be transferred to practice. GM spent her childhood in different regions of of Canada as she is from a military family, and as such experienced a range of weather during her childhood school days; the majority of her youth was spent on Vancouver Island, Canada. Her research focuses on how the environments where children and adolescents spend their time influences their health and wellbeing. It is through this lens that she interprets the results. BH grew up in a remote street in the hills of the Yarra Valley in Austrailia, with many of his early days spent creating, inventing and designing outdoor activities to keep busy in such a quiet region. These circumstances developed a strong affection for the potential of outside physical activities. BH has spent 15 years either as a physical education lecturer, teacher and researcher investigating a multitude of angles to better improve the physical activity levels and environments within school communities. The groups offer these findings as only one possible interpretation of the data.

Results

Table 1 presents teachers’ estimates on days modified to indoor recess. They estimated that approximately 26.4 school days have recess changed to be indoors. From the data, two main themes were identified: (1) consequences of indoor recess and (2) modifiable barriers to wellbeing activities. The following section will describe each theme and include direct quotes from the interviews. Identifying characteristics (i.e. school board, geographic area, name) have been removed from quotes.

Theme 1: consequences of indoor recess

Adverse effects on students, teachers, and administration prevailed throughout all discussions of indoor recess. Teachers commented that indoor recess interfered with their time to lesson plan.

If I wanted to do something in my class and get something ready while they’re outside and they’re inside, I can’t do that or even kind of tidy up if they have a little bit of a mess.

(Year 10, grade 3 teacher)

Key informants often reported that students were to be kept in their homerooms throughout the indoor recess:

They had to stay in their classrooms. There was no mingling. Generally, the expectation is they’re sitting at their desks.

(Several years, grade 7 teacher)

These rules may have a negative impact on children as teachers reported changes in student behaviour as a result of indoor recesses, including the inability to concentrate or focus, fidgety, silliness, lack of self-regulation, or dwindling attention spans. These changes in student behaviour were reported to compound throughout extended durations of indoor recess, such as cold snaps or weeks with heavy rainfall:

Now it’s the second day. Now it’s a third day. You can really get that vibe in the school. They’re just antsy because they need to run, they need to just unleash almost, you know, and it’s hard just to sit there, and even though they move around the classroom like they still just need to, they need that activity.

(Year 11, vice principal/teacher)

Key informants also discussed how or if children were able to experience nature during indoor recess. Informants admitted that the opportunities are sparse. Some key informants revealed that they allowed students outside for about five minutes before resuming regular indoor recess activities. One key informant was not acquainted with any such strategies but felt that fresh air, albeit brief, would benefit children:

I also think there could be a solution or a plan in place to meet the needs of the ones that do need to get that fresh air.

(Several years, grade 7 teacher)

The key informants highlighted increased screen time among children during indoor recesses. It was identified that students were typically not allowed to use their personal devices during school hours, but exceptions are made for indoor recess. Besides personal devices, many key informants revealed that teachers typically put on movies or allowed free time on computers:

It has increased screen time, whether it’s putting a show onto the SMART Board for the entire class to watch or the students accessing their Chromebooks.

(Year 19, principal)

Theme 2: modifiable barriers to wellbeing activities

When discussing indoor and outdoor recess in inclement weather, teachers reported numerous barriers to wellbeing activities. Key informants discussed: preparedness (i.e. student preparedness, communication with parent/guardian), capacity (i.e. lack of space, lack of supervision, gymnasium space), and rules (i.e. noise levels, kept in homerooms). Student unpreparedness focused on appropriate clothing for inclement weather conditions. Most schools attempted to communicate with parents through a monthly newsletter. However, this seemed to have little effect, as one teacher said:

They’re not bringing appropriate clothing for rain. Kids are going outside in the rain and they’re getting soaked. Students are dressing themselves, and parents aren’t involved in that decision-making, and they’re not appropriately dressed for that kind of adverse weather.

(Year 16, grade 7 teacher)

While discussing the topic of preparation, key informants raised concerns about frostbite or general sickness from the lack of appropriate preparation. Some informants indicated that having extra clothing suitable for inclement weather would be helpful in maximizing opportunities for outdoor recess and its accompanying wellbeing benefits.

Key informants also spoke about how a lack of professional development and limited indoor space reduced wellbeing activities.

It’s definitely the space for sure. The space and the scheduling. The space in the classroom. Just because it’s already kind of full of furniture, it’s not set up for that type of activity.

(Year 11, vice principal/teacher)

Lack of supervision was also commonly cited as a barrier to wellbeing activities. This unsupervised time raised safety concerns, which led to rules such as keeping noise levels low and being kept in homerooms.

Supervision is the biggest issue. Just having enough adults to make sure that all the kids are visible at the time, that is our hugest issue.

(Year 19, principal)

Discussion

The present research used key informants’ perceptions to explore weather-modified recess. Key informants provided rich descriptions of barriers to going outside in different weather conditions, barriers to participation in wellbeing activities during indoor recess and its consequences on children. The results of this study provide school administration and policymakers with information on the impact of weather-modified recess and potential directions to limit the negative effects of indoor recess.

On average, key informants estimated 26.4 days of recess were modified to be indoors. Key informants reported numerous barriers or concerns for allowing children outside in various weather conditions, including frostbite, wet children, preparedness, school design and rules. Despite regular communication about suitable clothing for inclement weather, students still attended school in inappropriate clothing. Attending school in unsuitable clothing for the weather conditions could be explained by students’ perceptions of popularity or the socio-economic status of the children. Key informants went on to explain influxes of students in the school office calling home for clothes is problematic as it takes children out of class, places a strain on administration, and teachers shared that phone calls to parents/guardians are often met with displeasure. A possible solution may be having extra clothing suitable for inclement weather kept at school.

Similar to previous research, the results of this study suggest that different weather conditions change the level of risk or concern when determining whether students should be sent outside (Doğan & Boz, 2019; Harrison et al., 2011; Kandemir & Sevimli-Celik, 2021). Key informants had few concerns with children playing outside during snowy conditions, unlike rainfall and extreme cold, where teachers were concerned about students getting sick. The primary goal should be to change educators’ and students’ perceptions and have them learn about opportunities that all weather conditions provide and how to play in these conditions safely. However, this solution might not be effective in all situations. Therefore, a secondary goal should include developing indoor opportunities for inclement weather conditions that minimize some of the negative impacts of indoor recess. School environments were also problematic as the teachers perceived that the classroom and lack of supervision did not allow for certain activities. During outdoor recess, one teacher can monitor both a large playing area and a large group of children, but during indoor recess, teachers or recess break supervisors must go back and forth between numerous classrooms. This leaves some classes needing supervision, making it challenging to allow for certain behaviours (i.e. physical activity, play with peers from other classes). A potential solution is to train peer leaders, such as the Build Our Kids Success program, and have them go to classrooms and run the program (Caldwell et al., 2022). This would reduce the strain on teacher supervisors, get children active and interacting during indoor recess and provide leadership roles for older students.

Consequences of indoor recess included increased screen time, decreased opportunities for physical activity, and decreased time spent in nature. The reliance on screen time during indoor recess is concerning as it may reduce opportunities for interaction with peers, impair the development of social skills and diminish sleep quality, which may reduce children’s ability to be calm and disrupt their capacity to behave appropriately (Hinkley et al., 2018). Besides technology, key informants reported using board games, colouring, playing with toys, or other activities that do not require students to leave their desks. Board games may promote active learning and retention of knowledge, but such sedentary activities hinder significant amounts of physical activity (O’Neill & Holmes, 2022). Future research is needed to explore what wellbeing related factors have the most significant decreases during indoor recess and programs that must be created to prevent these losses.

Another consequence of indoor recess was diminished contact with nature. Studies have revealed that interaction with nature activates children’s senses in different ways, and children may benefit intellectually, physically, socially, and emotionally (Becker et al., 2017; Kandemir & Sevimli-Celik, 2021). Our key informants revealed a strategy that allows children to go outside for a quick break during inclement weather conditions. Even a short break exposed to nature is shown to produce better moods and increased attention span, especially in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Faber & Kuo, 2009; Nisbet & Zelenski, 2011). Within school regulations and policies, this strategy is practical and may pose benefits to children.

Future research on weather and recess should use a comprehensive school health framework to guide the research. This framework is internationally recognized for promoting students’ improvements in both educational and wellbeing-related outcomes. The framework consists of four areas of action: social and physical environment, policy, teaching and learning, and partnership and services. The key informants mentioned the social and physical environment (i.e. lack of school space, inability for students to connect with others during indoor recess), teaching and learning (i.e. lack of professional development), policy (i.e. no practices or policies to promote wellbeing during indoor recess), and partnerships and services (i.e. connect between school and schools’ families in ensuring students are adequately prepared for all weather conditions). Using this framework will help further explore the four areas of action which may help transfer the findings across schools.

Limitations

A potential limitation is teachers were asked to estimate the number of days that outdoor recess was moved to inside and were asked their perceptions on the consequences of indoor recess. These estimates are less accurate than direct observation. This may have led to a non-differential misclassification bias on the number of days modified to be indoors. Another limitation of this study was the small sample size, but there is scarce literature on this topic and the depth of responses still make adequate contributions to the literature in this area.

Conclusion

Students’ opportunities for physical activity, experiencing nature, and socializing with peers are reduced because of indoor recess. With many countries facing inclement weather conditions, it is pertinent to children’s wellbeing that these opportunities are maximized throughout the school year. The results of this study suggest that students may benefit from having an extra set of clothing suitable for inclement weather at school, creating designated spaces for physical activity and socializing during indoor recess, or allowing students outside for a short period of time before resuming the rest of their indoor recess. The present study has the potential to inform future studies using a comprehensive school health framework that can help inform decisions and policymakers on strategies to improve recess in inclement weather.

Human subjects approval statement

Ethics for this project was submitted and approved University Human Ethics Research Board.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2024.2335161.

Additional information

Funding

This project was funded by a Major [17131] and Discretionary Grant [16678] from the University of Winnipeg.

Notes on contributors

Carson Ouellette

Carson Ouellette is a recent Bachelor of Education graduate of University of Winnipeg. He is a certified K-12 teacher practicing in rural Manitoba. His research interests include weather and school recess, rural education, and social accountability.

Gina Martin

Gina Martin is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Health Disciplines at Athabasca University, Canada. Her research focuses on understanding how the physical and social environments where people live, play, work, and learn influences their health and well-being.

Brendon Hyndman

Brendon Hyndman is an Associate Dean (Research) in the Faculty of Arts and Education (FOAE) based at the Albury-Wodonga campus. Brendon is a qualified school teacher with postgraduate qualifications in higher education teaching and leadership, alongside a PhD from RMIT University in Melbourne.

Brenton Button

Brenton Button is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of Winnipeg, Canada. He is also a qualified K-12 teacher. His research interests include factors influencing children’s health during the school day, outdoor education, and rural health.