On the necessity for biomechanics research in esports

Introduction

What are esports?

Esports (electronic sports) are defined as organised and competitive video gaming confrontations (Witkowski, 2012). Esports players either compete against each other directly and individually (Starcraft II, Teamfight Tactics) or as a team (League of Legends, Counterstrike) or indirectly in the pursuit of a high score (Tetris: The Grand Master and Osu!) or best time to finish the game (every game can be played to finish it in the fastest manner without cheating; this practice is named: ‘Speedrun’ or ‘Speedrunning’). It is widely assumed that the origin of esports can be traced to the first Spacewar competition at Stanford University in 1972, where students gathered to compete for a one-year subscription to Rolling Stone magazine (Scholz, 2019). Esports have grown in popularity and revenue significantly during the last 20 years, and numerous genres of video games are now played competitively. Esports are experienced by over 3.3 billion players (mobile, PC and consoles taken together), and generate estimated revenues of $187.7 billion dollars, i.e., 2.6% year-on-year growth (Newzoo International, 2023). The most popular game genres are Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG), First Person Shooter (FPS), Third Person Shooter (TPS), Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA), Real-Time Strategy (RTS), sports simulation, fighting action games, and Battle Royale (BR) games (Jang & Byon, 2020). According to Newzoo statistics, esports attract a substantial number of competitors. In spite of the growth in popularity, revenue and appetite for organised spectated competition, there remains debate among esports and sports stakeholders about whether esports can be considered sports (International Olympic Committee, 2023; Jenny et al., 2017; Parry, 2019; Parry & Giesbrecht, 2023).

This editorial examines the extent to which esports could be considered sports, specifically highlighting the often-neglected biomechanical factors involved in esports. We highlight the dearth of research on the biomechanics required to play competitive video games, drawing attention to topical concerns in traditional sports like performance optimisation, injury prevention, and evidence-based training methods.

Esports are sports

Allen Guttmann presented a model where modern sport is defined broadly as physical, competitive, and organised play (Jonasson & Thiborg, 2010). Similarly, Wagner defined esports as ‘[…] an area of sport activities in which people develop and train mental or physical abilities in the use of information and communication technologies’ (Wagner, 2006, p. 439)., As Wagner stated in this definition, players develop and train their mental and physical abilities which highlight the varying amounts of physical/motor and mental/cognitive abilities required to perform in various sports and esports (Campbell et al., 2018). Accordingly, the elements of competition (Besombes et al., 2015; Witkowski, 2012), strategic demands (Fanfarelli, 2018; Lewis et al., 2011), organisation (Jenny et al., 2017; Witkowski, 2012), and cognitive and motor skills (Campbell et al., 2018; Himmelstein et al., 2017; Nagorsky et al., 2020; Toth et al., 2021; van Hilvoorde & Pot, 2016) at play make esports similar to traditional sports. Competing at an elite level in various esports requires remarkable control of movement (Lewis et al., 2011), allowing for accurate and precise control of peripheral devices needed to interact with virtual environments (Nagorsky et al., 2020; Pluss et al., 2020; Toth et al., 2023). Akin to traditional sports athletes, esports athletes perfect the movements required to perform, through deliberate practice across many hours of training (Nagorsky et al., 2020; Overå & Talberg, 2023). Although some esports researchers continue to debate the extent to which esports can be classified as a sport (Benti et al., 2023; Besombes et al., 2015, 2016; Brion, 2022; Heere, 2017; Jenny et al., 2017; Jonasson & Thiborg, 2010; Parry, 2019; Riatti & Thiel, 2023; Steinkuehler, 2020; Witkowski, 2012), similarities between both traditional sports and esports are undeniable. Irrespective of whether esports should be recognised as a sport, these claims show that esports place unique demands on the cognitive-motor system and thus provide a unique arena to explore cognitive and biomechanical aspects of expertise.

To date, research into performance in esports has largely focused on highlighting the cognitive skills and demands of esports (Campbell et al., 2018; Ciobanu et al., 2023; Dale et al., 2020; Pedraza-Ramirez et al., 2020; Philips, 2023). For instance, Kowal and colleagues emphasised cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory and executive functions that are essential to well-perform in esports (Kowal et al., 2018). Moreover, Campbell and colleagues recognise esports players as ‘cognitive athletes’ (Campbell et al., 2018). While competitive video game players may hold a cognitive advantage over lesser or non-video game players, this cognitive advantage still has to be translated to a motor output that results in accurate and precise actions in the virtual video game environments.

Previous work has highlighted that esports performance involves perceptual-motor abilities (Bediou et al., 2018; Pluss et al., 2020), hand-eye coordination (Campbell et al., 2018; Kowal et al., 2018; Pluss et al., 2020), bimanual coordination (van Hilvoorde & Pot, 2016) and dexterity (Campbell et al., 2018; Jonasson & Thiborg, 2010; Nagorsky et al., 2020; Toth et al., 2020; van Hilvoorde & Pot, 2016) and the ability to adapt to an ever-changing game environment (Nagorsky et al., 2020; Sharpe et al., 2022). In esports, players perform highly repetitive movements with their upper limbs (sometimes over 400 actions per minute, Lewis et al., 2011) and control and coordinate movement patterns, allowing them to intercept moving targets, move efficiently through a virtual environment, and react to opponents within remarkably short timeframes. However, to fulfil all these requirements, upper limb biomechanics will be of particular interest as muscular activities used to apply forces from the arms, forearms, hands, and fingers allow esports players to produce fast, accurate and precise movements with peripheral devices. All these attributes align with the generic model of sports performance. Thus, the motor skills demanded by many esports highlights the physical and skilful interactions players must have with specific electronic devices to interact with the virtual world. With the increasing recognition of the importance of motor behaviour in esports, it is surprising to see that biomechanical investigations in esports remain under-represented in esports research and this presents an opportunity for the field of esports performance (McNulty et al., 2023; Nagorsky et al., 2020). Esports science is a broad field that requires multidisciplinary research, and as such, there is a need to investigate the biomechanics of elite video game play to provide insight on the physical determinants of health and performance in esports.

Biomechanics in esports

Biomechanics involves a field of study that encompasses an understanding of how living beings move. It is a mainstay in sports performance research and is a potential tool to explore the motor abilities of esports players. Through the investigation of kinematics (3-D motion capture, inertial measurement units, goniometers), kinetics (force plates, pressure mats), and muscle activity (electromyography), objective measures can be gathered to help understand the mobility and stability exhibited by players when performing. Biomechanics research has been shown to be valuable for exploring sporting excellence for multiple decades and has informed the development of performance training methods (Barbosa et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2017; Mero et al., 1992; Morin & Samozino, 2018), and injury prevention (Bersanetti et al., 2021; Gluck et al., 2008; Hewett & Bates, 2017; Johnson et al., 2015; Lee & Bang, 2013; Sandfeld & Jensen, 2005; Winkelstein & Myers, 1997). These topics are also pertinent to esports players (Abbott et al., 2022; Campbell et al., 2018; Emara et al., 2020; Nagorsky et al., 2020; Sharpe et al., 2022). Therefore, there is a need to investigate esports training methods through the lens of biomechanics to improve the acquisition and maintenance of motor skills in esports. Further biomechanical investigation within the esports environment, by examining parameters such as (i) kinematics (joint angles, position, velocity, acceleration), (ii) kinetics (force), and (iii) neuromuscular outputs (surface electromyography, firing rates, conduction velocity, frequency domain analyses) could help understand the effect of esports on muscular fatigue and overall esports body stresses, which will ultimately help to prevent overuse injuries and enhance performance.

Discussion and implications

Performance in esports

Currently, research in esports performance is largely related to outcome measurements such as match outcome (victory/defeat) and in-game statistics (As’ari et al., 2021; Białecki et al., 2023; Błaszczyk & Szajerman, 2023; Maymin, 2021; Reitman et al., 2020; Schubert et al., 2016) and cognitive/mental training (Campbell et al., 2018; Leis et al., 2021; Pedraza-Ramirez et al., 2020). While these measures provide knowledge of results that can aid motor proficiency among esport players, previous research has demonstrated that overall performance outcomes can improve to a greater extent with additional knowledge of motor performance (Sharma et al., 2016). However, performance outcomes can vary across esport genres (Dobrowolski et al., 2015; Fletcher & James, 2021; Himmelstein et al., 2017; Jang & Byon, 2020; Nagorsky et al., 2020) and even across roles/characters within specific games (Yang et al., 2021). Additionally, the peripheral devices used by players to interact with their virtual environment can also influence their motor performance (Conroy et al., 2022; Li et al., 2022; Park et al., 2021; Toth et al., 2023) and strategies (Migliore et al., 2021; Reddit, 2013). With only a few studies to date that have started to investigate esports from a biomechanical perspective (Li et al., 2022; Park et al., 2021), it remains unclear how factors related to game genre, game character and peripheral devices influence performance in esports. By quantifying the kinematics and kinetics of players during video game play and training, players and coaches can be equipped with a deeper understanding into the aspects of motor control important for performance improvement in esports. Ultimately, this information could be translated into new training software for players allowing them to deliberately practice and apply the individual skills which are the most efficient to improve during in training (Boot et al., 2010; Landin et al., 1993; McKendrick & Parasuraman, 2012; Pluss et al., 2021; Towne et al., 2016; Yao et al., 2009). Similarly, customised training performed outside gameplay (e.g., motor coordination drills with balls, playing other game genres to improve specific aspects of performance) and peripheral designs (e.g., novel shapes, peripherals customised for specific esport genres, or to specific players) may transform esports performance. All these opportunities highlight the importance of profiling the biomechanics of behaviours of competitive video game play.

Esports current training framework

Currently, esports training consists of extended periods of sustained play (Huang et al., 2017; Nagorsky et al., 2020). Due to the lower physical exertion associated with most esports participation that allows prolonged practice, it has been observed that the average practice time by professional esports players can range between 5.5 to 12 hours per day (Difrancisco-Donoghue et al., 2019; Emara et al., 2020; Franks et al., 2022; Migliore et al., 2021; Rudolf et al., 2020; Sabtan et al., 2022). These figures can be even greater among some professional South Korean esports players, with reports of players allocating 15 hours a day to training (Lee et al., 2021). As appropriate training guidelines have been slow to manifest within the arena of elite video gaming, players tend adopt inadequate training habits (Migliore et al., 2021).

Unfortunately, these inadequate or even dangerous habits may be a critical factor underlying the early retirement of many professional players. For example, in 2020, the famous League of Legends player, Jian ‘Uzi’ Zi-Hao, retired due to multiple injuries (right shoulder and arm) and health issues (type II diabetes) (Tuting, 2019). He attributed to the development of his shoulder and arm injuries to the rigorous training he thought was required (10 hr per day) to maintain his performance (Davis, 2020). Such training methods hinder players’ performance and might cause repetitive strain injuries and musculoskeletal disorders because of the high repetitiveness of motion and poor knowledge of body capacities to manage these demands (Aasa et al., 2011; McGee & Ho, 2021; Migliore et al., 2021; Zwibel et al., 2019). It has been shown that musculoskeletal issues are frequently reported during highly repetitive tasks (Johansson & Sojka, 1991; Larsson et al., 1999; Sjøgaard & Søgaard, 1998; Wahlström, 2005). Overall, Uzi attributed his retirement to his injuries that rendered him unable to perform the motor tasks demanded by the game he played at the professional level. Further anecdotal evidence that inadequate training methods can lead to injury and performance loss in esports is rampant. However, no investigations have been made to assess the physical implications of extended periods of training which are suspected to lead to injury in esports. By examining the effect of extended training in esports through the lens of biomechanical analyses, we may be able to determine the extent that extended training impacts injury among esports players. These biomechanical studies could draw on existing knowledge and techniques that are widely used in sports performance contexts, such as the use of 3D motion analysis, tendon and muscle strain analyses, electromyography, and ultrasound imaging.

In addition to uncovering new knowledge on physical injury risk in esports, biomechanical research in esports may also aid in transforming current esports training frameworks. A recent article highlights that semi-professional and professional players admit that training in esports has never been subject to discussions (Abbott et al., 2022), professional players have more recently agreed that their training methods were not as effective as they should be and may be hindering their development (Abbott et al., 2022; Bubna et al., 2023; Sabtan et al., 2022). The examples above highlight the need for a better understanding of the biomechanical limits for esports training. With this understanding, more effective support and training guidance may be provided to help augment the performance and reduce the injury risk among esports players.

Health and injury in esports

Lower body inactivity and the sustained posture over extended periods coupled with the high demand for precision in a time-pressured environment is placing esports players at a greater risk of developing musculoskeletal disorders (Difrancisco-Donoghue et al., 2019; McGee & Ho, 2021; Zwibel et al., 2019). Moreover, esports often specifically place high demands on fast repetitive movements (often measured to be over 400 actions per minute on average, Lewis et al., 2011). This high amount of repetitive motion is suspected to exacerbate the risk of pain and injury development. In comparison, 130–180 actions per minute have been reported in office workers (McGee & Ho, 2021), who commonly experience musculoskeletal disorders and repetitive strain injuries (Jensen et al., 2002; Sjøgaard & Søgaard, 1998).

When examining the effects of sustained postural control on performance, it has been shown that sustaining a posture for long durations is stressful for body tissues and can also lead to pain and injuries (Dong et al., 2022; Palsson et al., 2019). Submaximal fatigue provoked by repetitive tasks and sustained contractions can lead to local ischaemia in muscle (Merletti & Parker 2004), resulting in a deterioration in movement accuracy (Huysmans et al., 2008; Proske & Gandevia, 2009). During precision tasks, the neck and shoulders muscles are necessary to stabilise the head and the upper body (Zabihhosseinian et al., 2015, 2019) and esports players attempt to accurately and precisely control their peripherals to interact with the virtual game environment. It should be no surprise then, that the neck and shoulder complex, the low back and the wrists among esports players are the most reported complaint sites then it comes to discomfort and pain (Difrancisco-Donoghue et al., 2019; McGee & Ho, 2021; Tholl et al., 2022). To date, some recent research has begun to focus on the biomechanical issues that exist in computer usage, and has examined postural variability, the effect of breaks and exercise movements (such as stretching, walking, or short bout of physical activity) on performance, fatigue, and inflammation (Ding et al., 2020; Kett & Sichting, 2020; Mota-Carmona et al., 2022; Palsson et al., 2019; Waongenngarm et al., 2018). This area remains in its infancy in the esports domain and a better understanding of the biomechanical mechanisms specifically in esports will serve to inform superior future interventions.

Factors to consider before investigating esports

Although esports athletes present as a unique population for biomechanics research, a thorough understanding of the esports environment is essential. Movement demands can vary based on the esport genres, the players’ roles within specific games, and the peripherals players use to interact with the virtual environment. For instance, the role players choose to play within a team may impact their motor demands more than their teammates. Similarly, esport genres may require different movement strategies or skills for individuals to perform at a high level (amongst others). Finally, the type of peripheral may greatly alter movement strategy or may significantly reduce injury risk for a given esport genre or character role. It must be noted that these examples do not represent an exhaustive list of the biomechanics variables that might be affected by different esport contexts. Thus, basic knowledge about the context in which games are performed is mandatory before designing a protocol. This is why, initial investigations into the biomechanical determinants in esports should be focused on global differences between players’ motor behaviours by highlighting players’ profiles. In this way, future research can avoid or control for confounding contextual factors that might skew results.

Future research and direction

The importance of biomechanical investigation in esports cannot be understated. While some studies have started to use biomechanical principles to investigate the effects of expertise on players mouse control and ability to aim at a target precisely and accurately (Buckley et al., 2013; Khromov et al., 2019; Li et al., 2022; Toth et al., 2021, 2023), little information is available concerning the biomechanical behaviour of esports players for various genres and roles based on their expertise. Further work to understand the mechanisms of motor control in esports using accelerometery, motion capture, and electromyography to capture typical patterns of movement between players will help to tailor esports training methods and reduce injury risk. This type of study could be extended to an in-depth analysis of the kinematics and kinetics demands associated with the genre in which players perform along with the roles players assume. Comparing the workload associated with genres, roles, and playstyles would allow coaches to customise training sessions and adapt players’ goals considering players’ specificities. From an external perspective, the interaction between the players and the peripherals such as the way players grip the devices could provide more insight into players’ external workload and movement behaviours during gameplay. Results from these investigations may lead to new peripheral designs that augment performance and increase players’ career longevity. Finally, based on the findings of the previous studies, research about novel physical conditioning training designs adapted to the different esports and players, would support better injury prevention methods.

Conclusion

Throughout this paper, we established that esports meet the accepted definitions of a sport, due to its competitive nature aspects and the cognitive and motor demands required for success. Despite stereotypes, esports clearly involve human kinetics and kinematics, lending it to the study of motor expertise through the lens of biomechanics research. Biomechanics in esports can be conducted in several domains related to performance and training methods along with injury risk avoidance, and peripherals’ design innovation. However, a comprehensive understanding of the esports environment (players’ preferences and habits, game context and characteristics, peripherals’ design) is essential to carry-out biomechanics research in esports. Moreover, there is a growing number of experts in esports biomechanics that could provide objective peer review of esports research. Some areas for future research should focus on the biomechanical differences among esport genres, the biomechanical differences among roles that players have within a particular game and the motor strategies players adopt when interacting with peripheral devices during gameplay.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported with the financial support of the Science Foundation Ireland grant 13/RC/2094_P2 and co-funded under the European Regional Development Fund through the Southern & Eastern Regional Operational Programme to Lero - the Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre for Software (www.lero.ie).