Combatting Climate Change Misinformation: Current Strategies and Future Directions

ABSTRACT

Climate change represents a persistent global phenomenon, presenting a significant threat to our entire ecosystem, including human lives. Regrettably, the widespread dissemination of online misinformation has significantly contributed to public skepticism regarding the reality of climate change. Consequently, public care about climate change has not reached the expected level of alarm, as evident in the denial of necessary actions. This study initiates by conducting a comprehensive review of existing research to identify current strategies for countering climate change misinformation. Subsequently, we perform a cross-cultural comparison between Western countries and China and provide specific and pragmatic recommendations tailored for diverse stakeholders. Finally, the role of emerging technologies in addressing climate change misinformation is explored.

KEYWORDS:

• Climate change
• public care
• misinformation
• debunking strategies
• emerging technologies

Introduction

The issue of climate change has surged to the forefront of global concern in recent years. Accumulating scientific evidence has unequivocally demonstrated that climate change is caused mainly by human activities (Cook et al., 2016), which is posing a severe threat to ecosystems and human survival. Indeed, numerous detrimental effects are already occurring, from extreme temperatures to wildfires and flood (Biermann & Boas, 2010). Consequently, the urgency to address climate change has led to a clarion call from a multitude of scientists, environmentalists, and media outlets. They passionately urge the public to pay attention to climate change and encouraging them to take action to combat its potentially catastrophic effects.

However, only 12% of individuals in the United States are aware of the robust scientific consensus on the reality of climate change (Leiserowitz et al., 2017). This lack of awareness contributes to significant public skepticism and denial about the existence of climate change, which, in turn leads the public to not care about the issue and take no action. However, addressing climate change requires widespread collective action (Lewandowsky et al., 2015). Without such public action, the continued rise in global temperatures could bring profound damage to both human society and ecosystems.

Misinformation significantly contributes to the development of public skepticism concerning climate change. Misinformation, broadly defined as information whose accuracy is not verified and is disseminated, whether intentionally or not, with the potential to cause harm. Climate change misinformation is commonly on various social media platforms, which often encompasses three main types within the context of climate change: (1) existence denial: This type questions the occurrence of climate change, asserting that it is not taking place to a significant extent; (2) attribution denial: it suggests that climate change is not caused by human activities, disputing the human influence on it; (3) impact denial: this form of misinformation downplays the potential adverse effects of climate change on both humans and the environment. Scholars have identified the pervasive dissemination of climate change misinformation, a form of infodemic, as a significant peril to both individuals and societies (Talwar et al., 2020). The World Economic Forum (WEF) has identified it as one of the top 10 global trends posing a threat to the world (World Economic Forum, 2013). For example, misinformation concerning vaccinations has led many parents to refuse immunizations for their children, resulting in a notable increase in vaccine-preventable diseases and even causing deaths among children. Furthermore, climate informatic has diminished climate literacy (Ranney & Clark, 2016), and has had a polarizing effect on the public, disproportionately impacting political conservatives (Cook et al., 2017). Many individuals find themselves ensnared in a tangled web of conflicting narratives, uncertain about what to believe. This disarray chips away at their care for climate-related issues and, in many cases, engenders apathy or indifference towards the looming specter of climate change. This reduces public support for climate policies (Ranney & Clark, 2016), which has contributed to delays in implementing mitigation policies (Lewandowsky, 2021).

Therefore, this study endeavors to review existing research to identify prevailing strategies for combating misinformation. Furthermore, we perform a cross-cultural comparison between Western countries and China, as well as propose specific recommendations for various stakeholders. Lastly, the study outlines future directions for combating climate misinformation using emerging technologies.

Strategies for combating climate change misinformation

Recognizing the gravity of climate change misinformation, scholars from an array of academic disciplines have focused their intellectual energies on the intricate challenge of climate change misinformation. This multidisciplinary approach has gained momentum, particularly since 2013, as researchers endeavor to unravel the various facets of this complex problem. These studies delve into the multifaceted challenge of climate change misinformation from diverse perspectives, thereby shedding light on the myriad dimensions of this issue. Initially, a number of studies have explored the factors contributing to the spread of misinformation, discovering that underlying belief systems, social norms, and psychological heuristics like confirmation bias (Treen et al., 2020). Furthermore, some studies have examined the path of misinformation dissemination using the contagion model, a mathematical model of infectious disease spread within a population. In this model, an “infected” individual can transmit information to a “susceptible” person through social connections, who, in turn, may infect another individual, potentially leading to an “infodemic” (e.g. Törnberg, 2018; Webb et al., 2016). In addition, one other particularly noteworthy aspect that has garnered significant attention is the development and implementation of effective strategies to combat climate change misinformation.

It is important to recognize the difficulty of countering climate change misinformation. Even when factual information dispels misconceptions about climate change, the initial false belief can persist (Lewandowsky et al., 2012; Swire et al., 2017). Moreover, if the correction contradicts pre-existing views of a polarized group a polarized group, it can even lead to unintended adverse outcomes (Ecker & Ang, 2019; Guess & Coppock, 2020; Wood & Porter, 2019). To circumvent resistance to correction, most existing research has focused on pre-emptive interventions (Lewandowsky & Van Der Linden, 2021). The most frequently tested strategies is inoculation, which is employed before exposure to misinformation (Anderson & McGuire, 1965). The goal of this approach is to intervene before people encounter misinformation. It effectively acts as a “vaccine” against false information, accompanied by a clear warning that individuals might be misled (Cook et al., 2015). The inoculation strategy can be categorized into two distinct methods: passive inoculation and active inoculation, based on how counterarguments are presented. Passive inoculation requires the audience to passively read counterarguments provided in the inoculation message. In contrast, active inoculation requires the audience to generate their own counterarguments (Compton & Pfau, 2005). Researchers often suggest that active inoculation entails more cognitive processing, making it more effective in promoting general resistance to persuasive misinformation compared to passive inoculation (Roozenbeek & Van der Linden, 2019). However, some studies have yielded contrasting findings. Banas and Rains (2010) indicated that inoculation interventions are effective regardless of whether refutations are presented in the inoculation messages or are generated by the recipient.

Another noteworthy aspect in addressing misinformation pertains to post-exposure correction strategies. While this area remains relatively underexplored in the existing literature, a few studies have delved into responding to misinformation after it has been received (Benegal & Scruggs, 2018; Lawrence & Estow, 2017; Vraga et al., 2020).

Drawing on the theory of source credibility, Benegal and Scruggs (2018) identified that corrections delivered by individuals affiliated with the Republican party against their partisan interest are more likely to effectively persuade recipients to acknowledge and align themselves with the scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change. This success in rectifying misinformation underscores the potential impact of credible messengers in the post-exposure correction phase. Vraga and colleagues’ study (2020) revealed that fact-focused and logic-focused correction strategies are effective when employed after individuals have been exposed to climate change misinformation. These correction methods can significantly diminish recipients’ misperceptions and contribute to a more accurate understanding of climate change. Furthermore, Lawrence and Estow (2017) undertook a comparative analysis of three distinct post-exposure debunking strategies, namely correction, collaboration, and control. Correction messages primarily aimed at reframing the discourse from global warming to climate change, emphasizing its seriousness as an issue. In contrast, collaboration messages bypassed the climate change aspect and concentrated on fostering collaboration for cleaner air and water. The control message focused on weather-related information without incorporating climate change communication strategies. The findings of their research indicated that individuals exposed to collaboration messages were more likely to accept and endorse the message itself, displaying reduced argumentative tendencies in their responses. This suggests that seeking common ground can be an effective approach to engage others in a discussion, potentially leading to productive conversations on solutions to environmental challenges.

Climate change misinformation in the cross-cultural context

To date, the prevailing literature on climate change misinformation has predominantly centered on Western countries. Nevertheless, climate change misinformation extends beyond the Western world, with a significant presence in Asia, notably in China (Chu et al., 2023). Climate change denialism, akin to its prevalence in many Western countries, represents a substantial form of misinformation. It is characterized by a refusal to acknowledge the reality of climate change, denial of human involvement, or downplaying the potential risks associated with climate change (Ji et al., 2023). However, climate change denialism in China diverges from the narrative prevalent in Western countries. While climate change is frequently characterized as a liberal agenda aimed at limiting citizens’ freedom in the West, in China, it is depicted as a conspiracy theory. This theory posits that climate change functions as a “low-carbon plot,” constraining China's development or serving as a strategy for the accumulation of Western financial capital (Hoffman, 2011). In addition, there are some misinformation suggesting that climate change could have positive outcomes. These misinformation claim that rising temperatures contribute to the prosperity of the nation. This assertion draws support from China's extensive historical background spanning various dynasties and historical climate data collected by a Chinese meteorologist almost half a century ago. However, this optimistic conclusion regarding prosperity fails to consider other influential factors, including political, economic, diplomatic, and social conditions.

In order to curb the dissemination of climate misinformation and bolster public awareness of climate change, the Chinese government and official media have been actively championing the promotion of factual information. Despite these endeavors, a noteworthy volume of climate misinformation continues to proliferate on Chinese social media platforms in recent years. It is crucial to highlight that current research exhibits a scarcity of exploration specifically focused on combating climate change misinformation in China. While strategies such as inoculation and post-exposure correction, which is effective in Western countries, offer potential for adaptation in the Chinese context, further validation is essential. This necessity stems from disparities in the types and origins of misinformation, highlighting the importance of a nuanced approach to ensure the effectiveness of these strategies within the Chinese contexts. This also underscores the urgency for more in-depth research and practical initiatives in climate communication in China.

Practical recommendations to different stakeholders

In fact, not only climate change but also climate-related misinformation is a global issue. Successfully addressing this challenge requires more than an individual or an organization relying on a singular strategy; it demands a collaborative effort. The key stakeholders involved in this endeavor include social media platforms, governmental bodies, media outlets, educators, and fact-checking organizations.

Social media platforms have emerged as fertile ground for the rapid dissemination of misinformation, necessitating their responsibility in curbing its spread. A recent study by Koch et al. (2023) found one effective strategy on reducing the perceived credibility of fake news posts, which is to add warning labels, informing people that the post's content had been disputed and provided links to further information about the dispute. This study revealed that the inclusion of warning labels significantly reduced the perceived credibility of misinformation posts. Moreover, these warning labels decreased the self-reported likelihood of users to disseminate misinformation.

Government, media, educators, and fact-checking organizations all play crucial roles in combating climate change misinformation (Das, 2020). Firstly, several governments in Europe and other regions have implemented regulatory measures to address misinformation, as outlined in the guide to anti-misinformation actions. Some of these effective regulations could serve as valuable models for adoption in various countries (Funke, 2019). Secondly, enhancing the localization of climate change coverage through comprehensive reporting in local media is essential. This approach can be more compelling when individuals perceive the issue as domestic, given the close tie between an individual's sense of identity and their place of residence (Das, 2020). This connection could increase individuals’ interest in climate change. Thirdly, scientists have issued an urgent call for effective climate science education for adolescents (Plutzer et al., 2016). Expanding the scope of climate-related education can increase young people's engagement with the subject. To effectively engage in discussions about climate change, adolescents need to grasp the broader context, including the economic and political dimensions, while developing negotiation, analytical, and scientific skills.

Additionally, some scholars have suggested the establishment of professional fact-checking organizations, such as FactCheck.org, PolitiFact, and FactChecker.org, to counteract misinformation related to climate change (Vu et al., 2023). In recent years, numerous fact-checking organizations have emerged in China. Some have developed their websites, while others have formed collaborations with social media platforms. These organizations employ big data technology to track and address recent instances of public concern, uncovering and rectifying the most recent misinformation. Despite their efforts, many fact-checking organizations encounter economic challenges, leading to personnel shortages. This results in relatively low efficiency and limited influence. To address these issues, it is advisable for these organizations to enhance their connections with universities and research institutions in the future.

Emerging technologies in combating climate change misinformation

Emerging technologies present promising avenues for addressing climate change misinformation. First, interactive technologies, including immersive 360° video and computer-generated virtual reality, have been strategically employed to proficiently convey factual information about climate change, representing a unique form of inoculation. These technologies enable users to empathize more easily and elicit emotional responses, thus demonstrating substantial potential not only in audience engagement but also in diminishing their vulnerability to climate change misinformation (Brannon et al., 2022). Recently, video games have also been designed to inoculate players against climate change misinformation. “Cranky Uncle,” an American-developed humorous yet educational game, amalgamates active inoculation, critical thinking, and cartoon-based debunking. These elements collectively could enhance students’ climate literacy and critical thinking abilities, equipping them with the resilience necessary to counter climate misinformation (Cook et al., 2023).

Furthermore, social media platforms should proactively develop adaptive and innovative features that seamlessly adapt to the evolving information environment. This involves establishing advanced algorithmic models to identify users susceptible to misinformation and disseminate correction information to them, effectively mitigating the likelihood of misinformation gaining traction and thereby elevating the overall quality of information circulating within their digital ecosystems. Simultaneously, platforms should prioritize the development of robust misinformation-debunking features, empowering the public to fact-check information with a single click. This streamlines the verification process and cultivates a culture of critical inquiry. In addition, the implementation of specific reward policies for individuals actively involved in fact-checking endeavors enhances the effectiveness and motivation behind these collective efforts, fostering a commitment to information accuracy within the broader online community.

Additionally, the integration of artifactual intelligence (AI) technologies could provide innovative solutions for addressing climate change misinformation. Utilizing methods such as natural language processing and complex network analysis, AI demonstrates its capability to discern misinformation. This involves a systematic approach, encompassing the tracing of information sources, analysis of source profiles, examination of content link domains, evaluation of content frameworks, and comparison of information across multiple platforms. Through meticulous analysis, AI can detect malicious accounts, including bots, spammers, and astroturfers. These malicious accounts can have warning labels added to their posts, and their posted content can be subjected to rigorous scrutiny. Moreover, AI can accurately identify information carrying scientific risks, and then human verification is used to ensure the authenticity of the information, thereby significantly improving the efficiency of rumor detection. In addition, AI possesses the ability to trace users exposed to such misinformation and deliver precise correction information. In optimizing and advancing existing misinformation debunking models, AI strategically unveils the chains of misinformation propagation, spanning from content platforms to end-users. This seamless integration of AI with human debunking processes establishes a more sophisticated and precise mechanism for combating misinformation, thereby contributing to a more effective and comprehensive approach to countering misinformation.

Conclusion

Based on extant research, it is apparent that the predominant focus of studies on combating climate change misinformation is centered on the Western world; however, there is a widespread prevalence of misinformation related to climate change in Asia, particularly in China. The causative factors and typologies of misinformation in this region significantly diverge from those observed in Western contexts. Notably, existing research has primarily concentrated on exploring the content of misinformation, revealing a distinct lack of comprehensive investigations into debunking strategies and their effectiveness. This emphasizes the critical importance of climate change communication within a cross-cultural context. In addition to identifying two primary strategies for combating climate change misinformation – specifically, inoculation and post-exposure corrections – this study provides practical recommendations tailored for diverse stakeholders, including social media platforms, fact-checking organizations, the media, governmental bodies, and educational institutions.

Furthermore, the evolution of new technologies presents novel challenges in countering climate change misinformation, with deepfake technologies complicating the identification of falsehoods. Therefore, the effective mitigation of climate change misinformation necessitates not only the cultivation of positive interactions among various stakeholders but also a focused consideration of the pivotal role played by emerging technologies. A multidisciplinary and collaborative approach is imperative to address this misinformation, heighten public awareness, and take decisive action against climate change.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).