The system of government decision-making and its changes in the late Qing

ABSTRACT

The government decision-making in the middle and late Qing Dynasty was mainly shown in the process of how government documents and memorials to the emperor were dealt with. Officials who were authorized with the right to submit memorials to the emperor drafted reports on the state affairs to ask for permissions or offer their own opinions, and the emperor replied to them with absolute power. In the late Qing, the Grand Council (Junjichu), the Six Boards (Bu), Zongli Yamen and other institutions were frequently consulted during the two periods of the empress dowagers’ “administering the state affairs behind the curtain” (chui lian ting zheng), so the higher officials’ role in dealing with state affairs gradually increased. The monarch’s routine approval of higher officials’ suggestions made these institutions to a large extent participated in the daily decision-making. However, the monarch’s authority of final decision-making remained unchanged until the establishment of Yuan Shikai’s cabinet in November 1911 when all government affairs followed the cabinet orders. Then the monarch’s decision-making power became void, and the Qing was actually turned into a constitutional monarchy.

KEYWORDS:

• The late Qing
• government decision-making
• administering the state affairs behind the curtain
• the Grand Council
• responsible cabinet
• absolute monarchy

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Glossary

Bu 部

Cao Cao 曹操

chui lian ting zheng 垂帘听政

Cian 慈安

Cixi 慈禧

cong yipin 从一品

Dalisi 大理寺

Daoguang 道光

Daxueshi liubu jiuqing huiyi 大学士六部九卿会议

Diange daxueshi 殿阁大学士

Dong Yuanchun 董元醇

Duanhua 端华

Duban zhengwu chu 督办政务处

Duchayuan 都察院

Du Han 杜翰

Guowu dachen 国务大臣

Hanlin 翰林

Huiyi zhengwu chu 会议政务处

Hu Weiyong 胡惟庸

Jiao Youying 焦祐瀛

Jiaqing 嘉庆

Jingshou 景寿

Junjichu 军机处

Kangxi 康熙

Kuang Yuan 匡源

Kungang 昆冈

Li Hongzao 李鸿藻

Li Hongzhang 李鸿章

Liang Dunyan 梁敦彦

Lifanyuan 理藩院

Lingban junji dachen 领班军机大臣

liuzhong 留中

Lu Chuanlin 鹿传霖

mingfa 明发

Muyin 穆荫

Natong 那桐

Neige daxueshi 内阁大学士

piao ni 票拟

Qianlong 乾隆

Qianqing 乾清

qingliu 清流

Qu Hongxu 瞿鸿禨

Ronglu 荣禄

Rongqing 荣庆

Shanqi 善耆

Shen Guifen 沈桂芬

Sheng Yu 盛昱

Shouxiang 首相

Sun Yuwe 孙毓汶

Sushun 肃顺

tiben 题本

Tieliang 铁良

tizou 题奏

tingji 廷寄

tingyi 廷议

Tongdaotang 同道堂

Tongzhengsi 通政司

Tongzhi 同治

Wang Mang 王莽

Wang Wenshao 王文韶

Weng Tonghe 翁同龢

Xianfeng 咸丰

Xianzheng biancha guan 宪政编查馆

Xieli dachen 协理大臣

Xu Shichang 徐世昌

Yan Song 严嵩

Yihuan 奕譞

Yikuang 奕劻

Yixin 奕訢

Yizhengwang dachen huiyi 议政王大臣会议

Yongle 永乐

Yongzheng 雍正

Yuan Shikai 袁世凯

Yuqian dachen 御前大臣

Yushang 御赏

Yushi 御史

Zaichun 载淳

Zaitian 载湉

Zaixiang 宰相

Zaiyuan 载垣

Zaize 载泽

Zhang Peilun 张佩纶

Zhang Zhidong 张之洞

Zhengshi tang 政事堂

zheng yipin 正一品

Zhili 直隶

Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋

Zizhengyuan 资政院

Zongli geguo shiwu yamen 总理各国事务衙门

Zongli Yamen 总理衙门

zouben 奏本

zouzhe 奏折

Notes

¹ For example, The Complete History of the Qing Dynasty stated that “the restoration of the Office of Grand Council (in the Qianlong reign) played an important role in strengthening the extreme rule of the absolute monarchy.” See Wang Rongsheng, Qingdai quanshi, vol. 4, 76.

² Jiang Tingfu, Zhongguo jindaishi dagang, 2–3.

³ Mao Zedong, “Zhongguo geming he Zhongguo gongchandang,” 626.

⁴ Wang Tianyou, Mingdai guojia jigou yanjiu, 50.

⁵ Zhang Tingyu, Ming shi 72: Zhiguan zhi yi, vol. 6, 1731–1732.

⁶ Shi Lüjin, “Gaige guanzhi yi xian zhouxian,” 512.

⁷ Dai Hongci, and Duan Fang, “Qing gaiding guanzhi yi wei lixian yubei zhe,” 372.

⁸ Junjichu suishou dengji dang [Registration of the Grand Council] (June 26, 11th year of the Xianfeng reign), file no. 03–0206-1-1011-169.

⁹ Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan, Xianfeng Tongzhi liang chao shangyu dang, 201–202, 204.

¹⁰ Ibid., 263.

¹¹ Ibid., 266.

¹² “Dong Yuanchun zouqing huangtaihou quanli,” 91–92.

¹³ Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan, Xianfeng Tongzhi liang chao shangyu dang, 401.

¹⁴ Qing muzong shulu [Records of Tongzhi Emperor of the Qing], juan 8, in Qing shilu, vol. 45, 227–229. This regulation was approved by the two Empress Dowagers.

¹⁵ Zhang Fang, Weng Zenghan riji, 231.

¹⁶ “Li qinwang Shiduo deng qingdan” [List of Prince Li, Shiduo, and Others] (December 18, the 13th year of the Tongzhi reign), file no. 118,475. Junjichu dang zhejian [File Copy of the Grand Council Archives]. The list is an attachment to the aforementioned note on December 18.

¹⁷ Qing Dezong shilu [Records of Guangxu Emperor of the Qing], juan 229, in Qing shilu, vol. 55, 87.

¹⁸ Weng Wange, Weng Tonghe riji, vol. 5, 2069.

¹⁹ “Li qinwang Shiduo deng yuken qinzheng hou reng xunzheng shunian zhe” [The Memorial of Prince Li, Shiduo, and Other Officials for (the Emperor) to be Guided for Another Several Years after He Personally Dealt with Government Affairs] (June 14, 12th year of the Guangxu reign), file no. 03–5688-051, Junjichu lu fu [Copies of Documents of the Grand Council].

²⁰ “Chun qinwang zou wei yuken huangtaihou tinian shijian fuyun xunzheng zhe” [The Memorial of Prince Chun for the Continuing of Guiding the Emperor by the Empress Dowager] (June 14, 12th year of the Guangxu reign), file no. 03–5688-050.

²¹ Qing Dezong shilu, juan 229, in Qing shilu, vol. 55, 94.

²² “Junjidachen zou wei zunzhi zhuo ni huangshang qinzheng huangtaihou xunzheng tiaokuan zhe” [The Memorial of the Ministers of the Grand Council for the Guidance of administration of Emperor] (October 17, 12th year of the Guangxu reign), file no. 03–5544-024.

²³ Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan, Guangxu Xuantong liang chao shangyu dang, vol. 13, 154.

²⁴ Qing Dezong shilu, juan 256, in Qing shilu, vol. 55, 446.

²⁵ “Junjidachen zou wei gong ni mingnian eryue guizheng dadian hou guifu jiuzhi yu biantong chuli getiao qingzhi qinding zhe” [Memorial of the Ministers of the Grand Council for Restoring the Old System after the Ceremony of Emperor’s Marriage] (November 10, 14th year of the Guangxu reign), file no. 03–5703-032.

²⁶ Mao Haijian, Wuxu bianfa shishi kao, 11.

²⁷ Qu Duizhi, Chunlu suowen lu, 106.

²⁸ “Gong qinwang, Chun qinwang deng zhe,” 208.

²⁹ Qi Jingyi, Juguting suibi, 159.

³⁰ Qing Dezong shilu, juan 481, in Qing shilu, vol. 58, 346.

³¹ Shi Lüjin, “Gaige guanzhi yi xian zhouxian,” 512.

³² Shen Ruilin, “Xingbu langzhong zhe,” 179–180.

³³ Qing Gaozong, Qingchao tongdian, vol. 27, 2179.

³⁴ Qing Renzong shilu [Records of Xianfeng Emperor of the Qing], juan 102, in Qing shilu, vol. 29, 373–374.

³⁵ Ibid., juan 154, in Qing shilu, vol. 29, 1120.

³⁶ “Hui qinwang Mianyu deng zou,” 421–422.

³⁷ “Chushi geguo kaocha zhengzhi dachen,” 368–369.

³⁸ Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan, Qingdai junjichu suishou dengji dang, vol. 169, 534–535; and “Qing qinwang Yikuang deng zou,” 464.

³⁹ “Yushi Liu Ruji zou zongli dachen,” 421–422.

⁴⁰ “Zhang Shanxi dao jiancha yushichen,” 429–430.

⁴¹ Zhao Binglin, “Guangxu dashi huijian,” 293, 300.

⁴² Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan, Guangxu Xuantong liang chao shangyu dang, vol. 32, 196.

⁴³ “Zhengzhi guanbao,” no. 1161, 6.

⁴⁴ “Xianzheng bianchaguan huiyi zhengwu chu,” 559–564.

⁴⁵ Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan, Guangxu Xuantong liang chao shangyu dang, vol. 37, 89–90.

⁴⁶ Ibid., 89–90.

⁴⁷ Liu Houbin, “Cong sansheng tizhi dao zhongshu,” 154.

⁴⁸ “Zizhengyuan zongcai shixu, shu Zizhengyuan zongcai neige Fazhiyuan yuanshi Li Jiaju, shu Zizhengyuan fuzongcai Lifanyuan zuoshilang Dashou deng zhe” [The Memorials of the President and Deputy President of the Advisory Council, the Deputy President of Lifanyuan] (September 8, 3rd year of the Xuantong reign), file no. 03–9303-019, Junjichu lu fu [Copies of Documents of the Grand Council].

⁴⁹ Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan, Guangxu Xuantong liang chao shangyu dang, vol. 37, 285.

⁵⁰ “Zhongda xintiao shijiu tiao,” 102–103.

⁵¹ Luo Baoshan, and Liu Lusheng, Yuan shikai quanji, 66.

⁵² Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan, Guangxu Xuantong liang chao shangyu dang, vol. 37, 330.

⁵³ Ibid., 333.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Wenjie LI

LI Wenjie is professor at the Department of History, East China Normal University. His main research interest is political history of the late Qing. His representative works include Zhongguo jindai waijiaoguan qunti de xingcheng (1861–1911) (The Emergence of the Modern Chinese Diplomats: Officials in the Zongli Yamen, Waiwu Bu and Legations, 1861–1911, Beijing: Shenghuo dushu xinzhi Joint Publishing Company, 2017) and Bian se shi chao: Wan Qing de chaohui, wenshu yu zhengzhi juece (The Sunrise Court: Imperial Audiences, Bureaucratic Communications, and Political Decisions in the Late Qing Dynasty, Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2020).