R2P Niche Diplomacy and Norm Development in Times of Politicization: A Look at Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden

ABSTRACT

Small states often conduct niche diplomacy. They focus their limited resources on advocacy in specific policy areas. For example, some promote human rights-based norms such as the responsibility to protect (R2P) and advance those norms’ social recognition in United Nations discourse. However, given the R2P’s politicized status, niche diplomacy in this realm has become increasingly difficult. This paper focuses on three small liberal states supporting R2P: Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden. Drawing on data from speeches and interviews, it analyses how these states engaged rhetorically with the R2P between 2017 and 2022. It identifies the divergent meanings that these states attach to R2P, and thus contributes to scholarship on norm support and contestation. Denmark has continually supported R2P initiatives, while Sweden and the Netherlands have prioritized accountability. From a critical constructivist perspective, these Western states’ diplomacy reflects different ‘meanings-in-use’ for R2P, which contribute to either norm reproduction or norm adaptation. Explicit R2P diplomacy strengthens the norm in the long term, while supporting this agenda without reference to R2P may help achieve other desired policy outcomes in the short term. The latter approach, however, challenges parts of the R2P norm by contributing to its contested status and narrowing scope.

KEYWORDS:

• Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
• Atrocity Prevention
• Human Rights
• International Norms
• Small States
• Diplomacy
• United Nations (UN)

Acknowledgements:

I am grateful for the feedback I received on earlier versions of this manuscript. I want to thank Ellen Stensrud and Martin Mennecke for initiating the ‘Small States and R2P at the UN’ workshop in preparation for this special issue in May 2022. I appreciate the detailed comments by Mathias Albert, Hanna Tuominen, Anders Wivel, Stephen Gadsby, and my colleagues from the Research Training Group ‘World Politics’, in particular Cansu Erdoğan, Simon Hecke, Alina Isakova, Frank Meyhöfer, Malte Neuwinger, and Robin Schulze Waltrup. Finally, the two anonymous reviewers’ comments were very helpful in improving the manuscript.

Notes

1 See Antje Wiener, A Theory of Contestation (Springer 2014) 7, 10, 19, 67.

2 See for a detailed discussion: Benedict Docherty, Xavier Mathieu and Jason Ralph, ‘R2P and the Arab Spring: Norm Localisation and the US Response to the Early Syria Crisis’ (2020) 12 Global Responsibility to Protect 248-249.

3 Jocelyn Vaughn and Tim Dunne, ‘Leading from the front: America, Libya and the localisation of R2P’ (2015) 50 (1) Cooperation and Conflict 29; Docherty, Mathieu and Ralph (n 2).

4 See for a similar framing Chloë M. Gilgan, ‘Human Rights Localisation in Liberal States: The UK’s Responsibility to Protect as Regime Change and Political Transition in Syria’ (2021) 25 International Journal of Human Rights 1457; Antje Wiener, ‘Enacting Meaning-in-Use: ⁠qualitative research on norms and international relations’ (2009) 35 Review of International Studies 175; Wiener (2014) (n 1) 27.

5 Christine Ingebritsen, ‘Norm Entrepreneurs: Scandinavia’s Role in World Politics’ in Christine Ingebristen, Iver B. Neumann, Sieglinde Gstöhl and Jessica Beyer (eds), Small States in International Relations (University of Washington Press 2006); Iver B. Neumann and Benjamin de Carvalho, ‘Introduction: Small States and Status’ in Benjamin de Carvalho and Iver B. Neumann (eds), Small States and Status Seeking (Routledge 2014) 9.

6 Andrea Ó. Súilleabháin, ‘Small States at the United Nations: Diverse Perspectives, Shared Opportunities’ (International Peace Institute 2014) <https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/ipi_e_pub_small_states_at_un.pdf>, accessed 30-10-2023, 1, 5.

7 This group includes the other Nordics and Switzerland, which are states that often commit to human rights-based norms and are ‘⁠fairly small, fairly wealthy, democratic, and all eager to spread their moral capital’. See Neumann and de Carvalho (n 5) 13; David Petrasek, ‘Not dead yet: Human rights in an illiberal world order’ (2019) 74(1) International Journal 103, 107; Ingebritsen (n 5).

8 Neumann and de Carvalho (n 5) 12-13; James Larry Taulbee, ‘Lesser States and Niche Diplomacy’ in James Larry Taulbee, Ann Kelleher and Peter C Grosvenor (eds), Norway’s Peace Policy: Soft Power in a Turbulent World (Palgrave Macmillan US 2014) 9-10; Súilleabháin (n 6) 6.

9 Nicole Deitelhoff and Lisbeth Zimmermann, ‘Things We Lost in the Fire: How Different Types of Contestation Affect the Robustness of International Norms’ (2020) 22 International Studies Review 51.

10 Mona Lena Krook and Jacqui True, ‘Rethinking life cycles of international norms: The United Nations and the global promotion of gender equality’ 18 (1) European Journal of International Relations, 103.

11 Wiener (2014) (n 1) 34.

12 Simon Adams, Mass Atrocities, the Responsibility to Protect and the Future of Human Rights - If Not Now, When? (Routledge 2021) 31.

13 China has been found to be ⁠‘openly hostile to R2P and related liberal norms’. See James Pattison, ‘The International Responsibility to Protect in a Post-Liberal Order’ (2021) 0(1) International Studies Quarterly 1, 4.

14 While ‘validation’ and ‘contestation’ are more precise concepts, ‘norm development’ broadly describes the advancement processes of a norm in more abstract terms. See, for instance, Krook and True (n 10) 111.

15 Pål Røren and Anders Wivel, ‘King in the North: Evaluating the Status Recognition and Performance of the Scandinavian Countries’ (2022) 0(0) International Relations 1; Annika Björkdahl, ‘Ideas and Norms in Swedish Peace Policy’ (2013) 19 Swiss Political Science Review 322.

16 Louise Olsson and others, ‘Sweden as an Elected Member of the UN Security Council – Promoting Women, Peace and Security as Core Council Business, 2017–18’, (Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), 2021) <https://www.prio.org/publications/12759> accessed 30-10-2023.

17 The GoF consists of 55 states and the European Union, and it promotes the norm through joint statements and diplomacy at the UN. The Global Centre for the R2P acts as its secretariat. Over the years, active states in this group have included Australia, Botswana, Canada, Costa Rica, Croatia, Ghana, and Rwanda. See Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, ‘Group of Friends of the Responsibility to Protect’ (n.d.) <https://www.globalr2p.org/group-of-friends-of-the-responsibility-to-protect/> accessed 30-10-2023.

18 Author interview, 29-11-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

19 Author interview, 29-11-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat); Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, ‘Ministerial Meeting on the Responsibility to Protect: Building Back Better’, Event Recording (24 September 2020), <https://www.globalr2p.org/resources/ministerial-meeting-on-the-responsibility-to-protect-building-back-better/> accessed 30-10-2023, 2:09:20 hours; Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, speech by Stef Blok, at the ‘Accountability for atrocity crimes committed by Daesh’ flagship event at UN Headquarters (27 September 2019); Alanna O’Malley and David den Dunnen, ‘Stretching Horizons and Testing Limits, The Netherlands and Sweden as Nations Security Council’ (2019) 10(2) Journal of International Organizations Studies 85.

20 Martin Mennecke, ‘Never Again? The Role of the Global Network of R2P Focal Points in Preventing Atrocity Crimes’ (2021) 39 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 161.

21 Gilgan (n 4) 1457; see also Docherty, Mathieu and Ralph (n 2).

22 Gilgan (n 4) 1458.

23 Gilgan (n 4).

24 Jess Gifkins, ‘Beyond the Veto: Roles in UN Security Council Decision-Making’ (2021) 27 Global Governance 1; Cecilia Jacob ‘Navigating between Pragmatism and Principle: Australia’s Foreign Policy Response to the 2017 Rohingya Crisis’ (2021) 13(2-3) Global Responsibility to Protect 186; Jason Ralph, ‘The Responsibility to Protect and the Rise of China: Lessons from Australia’s Role as a “pragmatic” Norm Entrepreneur’ (2017) 17 International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 35.

25 Docherty, Mathieu and Ralph (n 2) 246; Vaughn and Dunne (n 3).

26 This is similar to the approach in other recent work: see Gilgan (n 4); Jacob (n 24).

27 Wiener (2014) (n 1) 34.

28 Angus Francis and Charles Sampford, ‘Introduction’ in Angus Francis, Vesselin Popovski and Charles Sampford (eds), Norms of Protection: Responsibility to Protect, Protection of Civilians and Their Interaction (United Nations University Press 2012); Samuel Jarvis, ‘The R2P and Atrocity Prevention: Contesting Human Rights as a Threat to International Peace and Security’ (2022) European Journal of International Security 175; Eglantine Staunton and Luke Glanville, ‘Selling the Responsibility to Protect: The False Novelty but Real Impact of a Norm’ (2022) 24 International Studies Review 1.

29 Jeffrey S. Lantis and Carmen Wunderlich, ‘Resiliency Dynamics of Norm Clusters: Norm Contestation and International Cooperation’ (2018) 44 Review of International Studies 570 571.

30 Staunton and Glanville (n 28).

31 ICISS, The Responsibility to Protect (International Development Research Centre 2001) <https://www.idrc.ca/en/book/responsibility-protect-report-international-commission-intervention-and-state-sovereignty> accessed 30-10-2023.

32 UN General Assembly (UNGA), ‘2005 World Summit Outcome’, Sixtieth session of the UNGA, 24 October 2005, A/RES/60/1, 30.

33 Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, ‘International Norm Dynamics and Political Change’ (1998) 52 International Organization 887, 892; Jennifer M Welsh, ‘Norm Robustness and the Responsibility to Protect’ (2019) 4 Journal of Global Security Studies 53; Wiener (2014) (n 1) 33-44.

34 UNSG, ‘Implementing the Responsibility to Protect’, A/63/677 (12-01-2009).

35 UNGA (A/RES/60/1) (n 32) 30.

36 Michael Ignatieff, ‘The Responsibility to Protect in a Changing World Order: Twenty Years since Its Inception’ (2021) 35 Ethics & International Affairs 177, 178; Adams (n 12).

37 Dutch Parliament, ‘Commission for Foreign Affairs: Myanmar’, speech by minister Stef Blok (27-06-2018) <https://debatgemist.tweedekamer.nl/debatten/myanmar-0> accessed 30-10-2023, 0:48:47 hours; Elisabeth Pramendorfer, ‘The Role of the Human Rights Council in Implementing the Responsibility to Protect’ (2020) 12 Global Responsibility to Protect 239, 240.

38 Gareth Evans and Mohamed Sahnoun, ‘Intervention and State Sovereignty: Breaking New Ground’ (2001) 7 (2) Global Governance 119.

39 See Šimonović in Staunton and Glanville (n 28) 12.

40 Jarvis (n 28) 10.

41 See statement by Sweden: Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect (n 19) 2:09:20 hours; UNSG (A/63/677) (n 34); UNSG ‘Implementing the Responsibility to Protect: Accountability for Prevention’, A/71/1016 (10 August 2017); UN Human Rights Council (HRC), ‘Summary of the intersessional panel’, A/HRC/48/39, 13-07-2021.

42 Martin Mennecke, ‘Denmark and the Implementation of R2P’ in Cecilia Jacob and Martin Mennecke (eds), Implementing the Responsibility to Protect: A Future Agenda (Routledge 2020); Pramendorfer (n 37) 239.

43 See UN Human Rights Council (HRC), ‘Resolution adopted by the Human Rights Council’, R2P-resolution, A/HRC/RES/44/14 (24-07-2020); UN General Assembly (UNGA), ‘Resolution adopted by the General Assembly’, R2P-resolution, A/RES/75/277 (18-05-2021).

44 See UN General Assembly (UNGA), ‘Resolution adopted by the General Assembly’, IIIM-mandate, A/RES/71/248 (21 December 2016); UN Human Rights Council Resolution (HRC), ‘Resolution adopted by the HRC’, IIMM-mandate, A/HRC/RES/39/2 (27-09-2018).

45 Ingebritsen (n 5) 275; Anders Wivel, Alyson J.K. Bailes and Clive Archer, ‘Setting the Scene: Small States and International Security’ in Clive Archer, Alyson J.K. Bailes and Anders Wivel (eds), Small States and International Security: Europe and Beyond (Routledge 2014) 9.

46 E.g., Denmark and Sweden are members of the Forum of Small States, while the Netherlands is not. The Netherlands is sometimes perceived as a small state, but at other times as a middle power. See Dutch Parliament, ‘Plenary Debate: Budget of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’, speech by minister Bert Koenders (24 November 2016) <https://debatgemist.tweedekamer.nl/debatten/begroting-buitenlandse-zaken-8?start=328> accessed 30-10-2023, 0:05:24 hours; Willem Oosterveld and Bianca Torossian, ‘A Balancing Act: The Role of Middle Powers in Contemporary Diplomacy’ [2018] Strategic Monitor 2018-2019 <https://www.hcss.nl/pub/2018/strategic-monitor-2018-2019/a-balancing-act/> accessed 30-10-2023.

47 Iver B Neumann and Sieglinde Gstöhl, ‘Lilliputians in Gulliver’s World? Small States in International Relations’ (2004) Centre for Small States Studies 1, 2; Wivel, Bailes and Archer (n 45) 11; Adam Lupel and Lauri Mälksoo, ‘A Necessary Voice: Small States, International Law, and the UN Security Council’ (International Peace Institute, 2019) <https://www.ipinst.org/2019/04/a-necessary-voice-small-states-international-law-and-the-un-security-council>; accessed 30-10-2023.

48 Annika Björkdahl, ‘Swedish Norm Entrepreneurship in the UN’ (2007) 14 International Peacekeeping 538; Taulbee (n 8) 9-10.

49 Ingebritsen (n 5); Barack Obama, A Promised Land (Penguin Random House UK 2020) 511.

50 Mennecke (n 42) 37; Neumann and de Carvalho (n 5) 12-13; Baldur Thorhallsson and Anna Margrét Eggersdóttir, ‘Small States in the UN Security Council: Austria’s Quest to Maintain Status’ (2020) 16, The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 1, 4.

51 This reassessment of the norm after the intervention in Libya can be illustrated in reference to statements by foreign ministers (see section 4). Academics have also debated the status of R2P since the intervention. See Adams (n 12) 31; Aidan Hehir and James Pattison, ‘Introduction: The Responsibility to Protect after the Arab Spring’ (2016) 51 Cooperation and Conflict 141.

52 Louise Riis Andersen, ‘Curb Your Enthusiasm: Middle-Power Liberal Internationalism and the Future of the United Nations’ (2019) 74 International Journal: Canada’s Journal of Global Policy Analysis 46, 47.

53 Pattison (n 13) 1.

54 Author interview, 04-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

55 Adams (n 12) 42-60, 95-114.

56 Ignatieff (n 36) 177, 178.

57 Pattison (n 13).

58 UNSG (A/63/677) (n 34).

59 Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘A white paper on the UN, Denmark and a world order under pressure’ (2022) <https://um.dk/udenrigspolitik/aktuelle-emner/hvidbog-om-fn-danmark-og-en-verdensorden-under-pres>, accessed 30-10-2023, 30.

60 Deitelhoff and Zimmermann (n 9); Pattison (n 13); Wiener (2014) (n 1).

61 See Jennifer M. Welsh, ‘Implementing the Responsibility to Protect’ in Alexander Betts and Phil Orchard (eds) Implementation and World Politics (Oxford University Press 2014) 124; Cecilia Jacob and Martin Mennecke, ‘⁠Introduction: the challenges of implementing the R2P norm’ in Cecilia Jacob and Martin Mennecke (eds), Implementing the Responsibility to Protect: A Future Agenda (Routledge 2020) 1; Martin Mennecke and Ellen E. Stensrud, ‘The Failure of the International Community to Apply R2P and Atrocity Prevention in Myanmar’ (2021) 13 Global Responsibility to Protect 111.

62 Docherty, Mathieu and Ralph (n 2); Wiener (2009) (n 4), (2014) (n 1); Jacob (n 24).

63 Wiener (2009) (n 4), Wiener (2014) (n 1).

64 Wiener (2014) (n 1) 34, 68.

65 Wiener (2014) (n 1) 27.

66 Krook and True (n 10) 109.

67 Wiener (2014), (n 1) 37, 43-44.

68 Wiener (2014), (n 1) 37; Krook and True (n 10) 104.

69 Docherty, Mathieu and Ralph (n 2), and Vaughn and Dunne (n 3).

70 The in-person interviews were conducted during a research stay in New York between February and June 2022.

71 Oisín Tansey, ‘Process Tracing and Elite Interviewing: A Case for Non-probability Sampling’ (2007) 40(4) PS: Political Science and Politics 765, 767.

72 This is why, to provide context and also ensure anonymity, the interviewees are categorized as either diplomats/bureaucrats or NGO practitioners who also work on R2P-related issues.

73 Wiener (2009) (n 4).

74 Alexander Baturo, Niheer Dasandi and Slava J Mikhaylov, ‘Understanding State Preferences with Text as Data: Introducing the UN General Debate Corpus’ (2017) 4 Research and Politics 1.

75 Johnny Saldaña, The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers (2nd edn, SAGE Publications 2013) 5.

76 Stefan Timmermans and Iddo Tavory, ‘Theory Construction in Qualitative Research: From Grounded Theory to Abductive Analysis’ (2012) 30 Sociological Theory 167, 168.

77 See also Gilgan (n 4); Jacob (n 24).

78 Mennecke (n 42) 42.

79 E.g., R2P language entails references to states’ and the international community’s responsibility to protect, or references to the R2P pillars as defined in the 2009 UNSG report. See UNSG (A/63/677) (n 34).

80 Author interview, 29-09-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

81 Mennecke (n 42) 54.

82 Wiener (2014) (n 1) 2, 26.

83 Docherty, Mathieu and Ralph (n 2); Gilgan (n 4) 1463.

84 See for a similar approach: Gilgan (n 4).

85 Tansey (n 71) 767.

86 Jacob and Mennecke (n 61) 5.

87 Regarding R2P diplomacy in the UNGA and HRC, see also: Mennecke and Stensrud (n 61); Pramendorfer (n 37); Rebecca Barber, ‘The Powers of the UN General Assembly to Prevent and Respond to Atrocity Crimes: A Guidance Document’ (Asia-Pacific Centre for the Responsibility to Protect 2021) <https://r2pasiapacific.org/article/2021/04/powers-un-general-assembly-prevent-and-respond-atrocity-crimes-guidance-document> accessed 30-10-2023; Norwegian Holocaust Center, ‘Atrocity prevention in an illiberal world. The role of a small state in the UN Security Council’ workshop live stream including keynote speech by Karen Smith, former R2P-Special Adviser (9-11-2021), <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UDzLHWXp_Ls> accessed 30-10-2023.

88 UNGA (A/RES/75/277) (n 43).

89 Author interviews, 18-10-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat), 9-11-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat), 23-08-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

90 Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, ‘UN General Assembly Debate on the Responsibility to Protect, 2021’, Event Summary, <https://www.globalr2p.org/resources/unga-r2p-debate-2021/> accessed 30-10-2023; Author interviews, 18-10-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat), 9-11-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

91 Pramendorfer (n 37) 240.

92 Author interview, 10-03-2022 (NGO practitioner).

93 UN Secretary-General, ‘Advancing atrocity prevention’, Report of the Secretary-General, A/75/863, 3-05-2021; See also UN General Assembly (UNGA), Seventy-fifth session, Official Records, Speech of the Danish representative (17-05-2021, 10am) A/75/PV.64, 7-8.

94 Author interviews, 14-03-2022 (NGO practitioner), 04-05-2022 (diplomat/practitioner).

95 HRC (A/HRC/RES/44/14) (n 43).

96 HRC (A/HRC/48/39) (n 41).

97 Docherty, Mathieu and Ralph (n 2); Wiener (2014) (n 1).

98 Gilgan (n 4).

99 Diana Amnéus, ‘Swedish State Practice 2004-2005: The Responsibility to Protect’ (2006) 75 Nordic Journal of International Law 311; Annika Bergman Rosamond, ‘The Cosmopolitan-communitarian divide and the Swedish Military’ in Annika Bergman Rosamond and Mark Phythian (eds), War, Ethics and Justice: New perspectives on a post-9/11 world. (Routledge 2012) 64-65; Björkdahl (n 15); Ann Marie Ekengren and Ulrika Möller, ‘Campaigning for the Prize: The Quests by Sweden and the Kingdom of the Netherlands for Security Council Membership, 2017–2018’ (2021) 56 The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 1, 14; Røren and Wivel (n 15); Ingebritsen (n 5).

100 Björkdahl (n 15).

101 UN General Assembly (UNGA), Seventy-sixth session, Official Records, Speech of the Swedish representative (23-09-2011, 9am) A/66/PV.19, 42.

102 The intervention in Libya led to critique because NATO not only intervened in Libya, but also engaged in regime change. See Adams (n 12) 31.

103 Swedish Parliament, ‘Official Records‘, speech by minister Margot Wallström (9 November 2016) <https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/protokoll/protokoll-20161726-torsdagen-den-10-november_H40926/html> accessed 30-10-2023.

104 Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect (n 19) 2:08:30 hours.

105 Olsson and others (n 16).

106 Author interviews, 14-01-2022 (NGO practitioner), 13-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

107 Author interview, 13-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

108 Author interview, 13-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

109 Author interview, 10-03-2022 (NGO practitioner).

110 Author interview, 13-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

111 UN General Assembly (UNGA), Seventy-second session, Official Records (25-06-2018, 3pm), A/72/PV.100, 19.

112 Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect (n 19) 2:09:22 hours.

113 For a discussion of such joint approaches see Gifkins (n 24); Súilleabháin (n 6); Taulbee (n 8).

114 Security Council Report, ‘Arria-formula Meeting: Accountability in Syria’ (29 November 2021), <https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/whatsinblue/2021/11/arria-formula-meeting-accountability-in-syria.php> accessed 30-10-2023; n.a., ‘Concept Note: The United Nations Security Council Arria-formula meeting on Accountability in the Syrian Arab Republic’ (29 November 2021) <https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/upload.teamup.com/908040/MxdLSVIGQmGOKG58gPit_Revised-20concept-20note_SC-20Syria-20Accountability-20Arria-2029.11.2021.pdf> accessed 30-10-2023; n.a., ‘Concept note: Arria-formula meeting on UNSC-ICC relations’ (06-07-2018) <https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/upload.teamup.com/908040/WpSNCvqTFuUm5rQyHIuQ_180706am-arria-icc.pdf> accessed 30-10-2023.

115 Olsson and others (n 16).

116 Deitelhoff and Zimmermann (n 9); Wiener (2014) (n 1).

117 Dutch Parliament, ‘Letter from the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Defense to the Dutch Parliament’, (22-03-2011) <https://zoek.officielebekendmakingen.nl/kst-32623-6.html> accessed 30-10-2023.

118 Author interview, 29-11-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

119 UN General Assembly (UNGA), ‘UN General Assembly Debate on the Responsibility to Protect, 2022’, Speech representing the GoF and the EU, Event recording (23-06-2022, morning session) <https://www.globalr2p.org/resources/2022-r2p-debate/> accessed 30-10-2023, 00:14:30 hours.

120 UNGA (n 110), Speech by the Benelux states, 00:36:40 hours.

121 See Karel Oosterom, Met een oranje das – Een Jaar in de Veiligheidsraad (With an orange tie – One year in the Security Council) (Atlas Contact 2020) 94.

122 Author interview, 29-11-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat); Government of the Netherlands, ‘The Netherlands holds Syria responsible for gross human rights violations‘, Government website: news, (18 September 2020) <https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2020/09/18/the-netherlands-holds-syria-responsible-for-gross-human-rights-violations> accessed 30-10-2023; Oosterom (n 121) 82-87.

123 Dutch Parliament, speech by minister Stef Blok, (n 37) 0:47:16 hours.

124 UN General Assembly (UNGA), Seventy-second session, Official Records, 25-06-2018, 10am, A/72/PV.99, 20-21; UNSC, ‘Resolution 2417’, Adopted by the Security Council, S/RES/2417, 24-05-2018, 18.

125 UN General Assembly (UNGA), Seventy-second session, Official Records, 25-06-2018, 3pm, A/72/PV.100, 7.

126 See Oosterom (n 121) 92-97.

127 Dutch Parliament, speech by minister Bert Koenders, (n 46) 0:02:06 hours.

128 Dutch Parliament, ‘Advice on the use of the term genocide by politicians‘, Commission on Foreign Affairs meeting, speech Sigrid Kaag <https://debatgemist.tweedekamer.nl/debatten/advies-inzake-gebruik-door-politici-van-term-genocide?start=9976> accessed 30-10-2023, 02:46:20 hours.

129 Author interview, 10-03-2022 (NGO practitioner).

130 Author interview, 10-03-2022 (NGO practitioner).

131 Author interview, 29-11-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

132 Author interview, 04-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

133 Author interviews, 08-03-2022 (NGO practitioner), 05-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

134 Oosterom (n 121) 96-97.

135 Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (n 59) 27.

136 Mennecke (n 42) 40.

137 Mennecke (n 42) 37.

138 Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, ‘Global Network of R2P Focal Points‘ <https://www.globalr2p.org/the-global-network-of-r2p-focal-points/> accessed 30-10-2023.

139 Mennecke (n 42) 40; UNGA (A/72/PV.99) (n 124) 25-26.

140 UNGA (A/72/PV.99) (n 124) 25-26.

141 UNGA (A/72/PV.99) (n 124) 25-26.

142 Author interview, 14-06-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

143 Author interviews, 29-09-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat), 27-05-2022 (NGO practitioner).

144 Author interviews, 18-10-2021, 09-11-2021; UN General Assembly (UNGA), Seventy-fifth session, Official Records, speech by Mr. Šimonović (Croatia) on behalf of the core group (17-05-2021, 10am) A/75/PV.64, 3.

145 Author interview, 04-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

146 Author interview, 04-05-2022 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

147 Author interview, 29-09-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

148 Taulbee (n 8) 9-10.

149 For future research, Denmark’s candidacy for a UNSC seat in 2025–26 could be an insightful case to study how the state continues its norm support.

150 See Docherty, Mathieu and Ralph (n 2); Gilgan (n 4); Vaughn and Dunne (n 3).

151 Author interview, 18-10-2021 (diplomat/bureaucrat).

152 See footnote 41.

153 Jacob (n 24) 32

154 Pattison (n 13) 11.

Additional information

Funding

Research for this article was funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) as part of the funding for GRK 2225: World Politics.