Digest of state practice: 1 January – 30 June 2023

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Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 See the records of the UNSC meetings: UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9241 (12 January 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9241 (Resumption 1) (12 January 2023); Un Doc S/PV.9243 (13 January 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9245 (17 January 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9254 (6 February 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9256 (8 February 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9262 (17 February 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9268 (23 February 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9269 (24 February 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9280 (14 March 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9286 (17 March 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9300 (31 March 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9301 (10 April 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9308 (24 April 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9308 (Resumption 1) (24 April 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9316 (4 April 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9321 (15 May 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9325 (18 May 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9334 (30 May 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9340 (6 June 2023); UN Doc S/PV.9364 (29 June 2023). See also the records of the UNGA 11th emergency special session: UN Doc A/ES-11/PV.17 (22 February 2023), UN Doc A/ES-11/PV.18 (23 February 2023) and UN Doc A/ES-11/PV.19 (23 February 2023). See also G7 Japan 2023, ‘Foreign Ministers’ Communiqué’ (18 April 2023) www.mofa.go.jp/files/100492731.pdf.

2 UNGA Res ES-11/6, UN Doc A/RES/ES-11/6 (23 February 2023).

3 Ibid, preamble.

4 Ibid, para 5.

5 UN Doc A/ES-11/PV.19 (n 1) 8.

6 UN Doc S/PV.9301 (n 1) 21.

7 UN Doc S/PV.9364 (n 1) 13.

8 UN Doc S/PV.9243 (n 1) 19; UN Doc S/PV.9269 (n 1) 5. See also President of the Republic of Poland, ‘Joint declaration by Presidents of Ukraine, Poland and Lithuania’ (11 January 2023) www.president.pl/news/joint-declaration-by-presidents-of-ukraine-poland-and-lithuania,63122.

9 UN Doc S/PV.9256 (n 1) 7.

10 UN Doc S/PV.9243 (n 1) 20.

11 UN Doc S/PV.9243 (n 1) 21; UN Doc A/ES-11/PV.18 (n 1) 10, 13; UN Doc S/PV.9254 (n 1) 20; UN Doc S/PV.9269 (n 1) 35; ibid, 29; UN Doc S/PV.9340 (n 1) 15; UN Doc A/ES-11/PV.17 (n 1) 17.

12 UN Doc S/PV.9269 (n 1) 34.

13 UN Doc A/ES-11/PV.18 (n 1) 20.

14 UN Doc A/ES-11/PV.17 (n 1) 15.

15 Ibid, 30–31.

16 See, also, Letter dated 17 January 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/46 (18 January 2023).

17 See, e.g. statements made by Switzerland (UN Doc S/PV.9243 (n 1) 8); Poland (UN Doc S/PV.9243 (n 1) 20); Ukraine (UN Doc S/PV.9243 (n 1) 18); Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, Norway (UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9357 (23 June 2023) 20; UN Doc S/PV.9254 (n 1) 19; UN Doc S/PV.9300 (n 1) 21; UN Doc S/PV.9269 (n 1) 28); UK (UN Doc S/PV.9243 (n 1) 16); Luxemburg (UN Doc S/PV.9243 (n 1) 31); and Albania (UN Doc S/PV.9300 (n 1) 3).

18 ‘Belarus leader says he wants guarantees that Russia will defend his country if it is attacked’, Reuters (10 April 2023) www.reuters.com/world/europe/belarus-leader-says-he-wants-guarantees-that-russia-will-defend-his-country-if-2023-04-10/.

19 ‘Minsk, Moscow hold talks for Russia to defend Belarus, if it’s attacked, as own territory’, TASS (10 April 2023) https://tass.com/politics/1602009.

20 Thiam Ndiaga, ‘Burkina Faso military government demands departure of French troops’, Reuters (22 January 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/burkina-military-govt-demands-departure-french-troops-national-television-2023-01-21/.

21 John Irish, ‘France to withdraw troops from Burkina Faso within a month’, Reuters (26 January 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/france-withdraw-troops-burkina-faso-within-month-foreign-ministry-2023-01-25/.

22 Thiam Ndiaga, ‘Burkina Faso marks official end of French military operations on its soil’, Reuters (20 February 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/burkina-faso-marks-official-end-french-military-operations-its-soil-2023-02-19/.

23 French Embassy in London, ‘Questions and answers – Press briefing by the Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs Spokesperson (excerpts)’ (26 January 2023) https://uk.ambafrance.org/Spokesperson-on-Ukraine-Russian-influence-in-Africa-and-Iran.

24 Ibid.

25 ‘Rwanda, Benin talk military cooperation over border security’, africanews (16 April 2023) www.africanews.com/2023/04/16/rwanda-benin-talk-military-cooperation-over-border-security/; James Tasamba, ‘Rwanda, Benin Agree to Military Cooperation’, Anadolu Agency (16 April 2023) www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/rwanda-benin-agree-to-military-cooperation/2873438.

26 Ibid.

27 Ibid.

28 Nairobi Newsroom, Djaffar Al Katanty and Stanys Bujakera, ‘Rwanda shoots at Congolese military jet over alleged airspace violation’, Reuters (25 January 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/rwanda-says-congo-fighter-jet-violated-its-airspace-2023-01-24/.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid.

31 Implementation of the Peace, Security and Cooperation Framework for the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Region: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc S/2023/237 (30 March 2023) paras 4–6.

32 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9298 (29 March 2023) 19. See also UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9358 (26 June 2023); UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9307 (19 April 2023).

33 Ibid, 20.

34 Ibid, 20.

35 Ibid, 22.

36 Ibid, 21.

37 UN Doc S/PV.9307 (n 32) 22.

38 UN Doc S/PV.9298 (n 32) 19–20.

39 Jasmin Johurun Nessa, Seyfullah Hasar and Agata Kleczkowska (eds), ‘Digest of state practice: 1 July – 31 December 2022’ 10 (1) Journal on the Use of Force and International Law 104, 119–21.

40 EAC, ‘20th Extra-Ordinary Summit of the East African Community Heads of State’ (4 February 2023) www.eac.int/communique/2720-communiqu%C3%A9-of-the-20th-extra-ordinary-summit-of-the-east-african-community-heads-of-state.

41 EAC, ‘Press Statement: Status of Deployment of EAC Troops and Verification Mechanisms in Eastern DRC’ (3 March 2023) www.eac.int/statements/2733-status-of-deployment-of-eac-troops-and-verification-mechanisms-in-eastern-drc. For further developments, see EAC, ‘Press Statement: Deployment of Troops From the Republic of Uganda and the Republic of South Sudan to the EAC Regional Force’ (30 March 2023) www.eac.int/statements/2767-deployment-of-troops-from-the-republic-of-uganda-and-the-republic-of-south-sudan-to-the-eac-regional-force; EAC, ‘Press Statement: Status of the East African Community Regional Force in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo’ (1 May 2023) www.eac.int/statements/2791-status-of-the-east-african-community-regional-force-in-eastern-democratic-republic-of-congo.

42 EAC, ‘Communiqué of the 21st Extra-Ordinary Summit of the East African Community Heads of State’ (31 May 2023) www.eac.int/communique/2813-communiqu%C3%A9-of-the-21st-extra-ordinary-summit-of-the-east-african-community-heads-of-state.

43 Ibid, para 13.

44 United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc S/2023/208 (20 March 2023) para 8.

45 SADC, ‘Communiqué of the Extra-Ordinary Organ Troika Summit, Plus SADC Troika and Force Intervention Brigade (FIB) Troop Contributing Countries (TCCS)’ (8 May 2023) para 10 www.sadc.int/latest-news/communique-extra-ordinary-organ-troika-summit-plus-sadc-troika-and-force-intervention.

46 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9358 (26 June 2023) 20.

47 Miguel Gomes and Sonia Rolley, ‘Angola to deploy troops in Congo’s rebel-hit east’, Reuters (17 March 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/angola-deploy-troops-congos-rebel-hit-east-2023-03-17/.

48 See the sources in n 32.

49 UNSC Press Statement, UN Doc S/PRST/2023/3 (29 March 2023). See also UNSC Res 2688, UN Doc S/RES/2688 (27 June 2023); Security Council Press Statement on Situation in Democratic Republic of Congo, UN Doc SC/15191 (3 February 2023) https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15191.doc.htm.

50 Ibid.

51 ‘Regional Armies Pound Jihadist Bases in Lake Chad Basin’, The Defense Post (31 January 2023) www.thedefensepost.com/2023/01/31/regional-armies-jihadist-bases-lake-chad/.

52 Ibid.

53 ‘Niger Says 55 Jihadists Killed in Joint Operation’, The Defense Post (29 May 2023) www.thedefensepost.com/2023/05/29/niger-jihadists-killed-joint-operation/.

54 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9265 (21 February 2023) 23.

55 Ibid, 24.

56 Ibid.

57 ‘Chad Says Troops Killed ‘Bandits’ in Operation With CAR’, The Defense Post (17 May 2023) www.thedefensepost.com/2023/05/17/chad-kills-bandits-operation-car/.

58 Ibid.

59 Ibid.

60 ‘17 Dead in Attack on Chadian Village’, The Defense Post (11 May 2023) www.thedefensepost.com/2023/05/11/attack-chad-village/.

61 ‘Chad Says Troops Killed ‘Bandits’ in Operation With CAR’ (n 57).

62 Ibid.

63 ‘Russian envoy says 1,890 Russian ‘instructors’ in Central African Republic – RIA’, Reuters (3 February 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/russian-envoy-says-1890-russian-instructors-central-african-republic-ria-2023-02-03.

64 Nessa, Hasar and Kleczkowska (n 39) 127.

65 Dawit Endeshaw, ‘Eritrea Troops Still on Ethiopian Soil, US Says’, Reuters (29 January 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/eritrea-troops-still-ethiopian-soil-us-2023-01-28/.

66 Ibid.

67 Ibid.

68 Ayenat Mersie, ‘Eritrean president sidesteps questions about troops in Ethiopia’, Reuters (9 February 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/eritrea-president-says-rights-violations-by-eritrean-troops-ethiopia-fantasy-2023-02-09/.

69 Gianluca Mezzofiore, Bethlehem Feleke and Eve Brennan, ‘Eritrean forces stop UN mission in Tigray, Ethiopia, aid workers tell CNN’, CNN (26 February 2023) https://edition.cnn.com/2023/05/26/africa/eritrean-forces-un-tigray-intl/index.html.

70 US Department of Defense, ‘Department of Defense Deploys Capabilities in Support of U.S. Embassy Personnel in Sudan’ (20 April 2023) www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3369090/department-of-defense-deploys-capabilities-in-support-of-us-embassy-personnel-i/.

71 Matthew Lee and Lolita C Baldor, ‘US military prepares for possible Sudan embassy evacuation’, AP (20 April 2023) https://apnews.com/article/united-states-sudan-djibouti-evacuation-2773f4922611aeed462652f178745688.

72 The White House, ‘Statement from President Joe Biden on the Situation in Sudan’ (22 April 2023) www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/04/22/statement-from-president-joe-biden-on-the-situation-in-sudan/.

73 Ibid.

74 Ellen Mitchell, ‘Role of US troops in Sudan to shift as Biden administration sees no quick end to fighting’, The Hill (4 May 2023) https://thehill.com/policy/defense/3988867-role-of-us-troops-in-sudan-to-shift-as-biden-administration-sees-no-quick-end-to-fighting/.

75 US Africa Command, ‘Somali, U.S. forces engage insurgents in support of the Federal Government of Somalia’ (20 January 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35119/somali-us-forces-engage-insurgents-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia. See also US Africa Command, ‘Somali, U.S. forces engage insurgents in support of the Federal Government of Somalia’ (24 January 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35122/somali-us-forces-engage-insurgents-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia; US Africa Command, ‘Somali, U.S. forces engage insurgents in support of the Federal Government of Somalia’ (30 January 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35130/somali-us-forces-engage-insurgents-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia; US Africa Command, ‘Somali, U.S. forces engage insurgents in support of the Federal Government of Somalia’ (12 February 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35141/somali-us-forces-engage-insurgents-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia; US Africa Command, ‘Somali, U.S. forces engage insurgents in support of the Federal Government of Somalia’ (16 February 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35142/somali-us-forces-engage-insurgents-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia; US Africa Command, ‘Somali, U.S. forces engage insurgents in support of the Federal Government of Somalia’ (22 February 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35144/somali-us-forces-engage-insurgents-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia; US Africa Command, ‘U.S. Counterterrorism Operation in Somalia’ (23 May 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35212/us-counterterrorism-operation-in-somalia; US Africa Command, ‘U.S. forces engage insurgents in support of the Federal Government of Somalia’ (2 June 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35214/us-forces-engage-insurgents-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia.

76 US Africa Command, ‘U.S. forces engage insurgents in support of the Federal Government of Somalia’ (27 May 2023) www.africom.mil/pressrelease/35213/us-forces-engage-insurgents-in-support-of-the-federal-government-of-somalia.

77 US Department of Defense, ‘Statement by Secretary of Defense Lloyd J. Austin III on Somalia Operation’ (26 January 2023) www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3279923/statement-by-secretary-of-defense-lloyd-j-austin-iii-on-somalia-operation/. See also The White House, ‘Background Press Call by Senior Administration Officials on a Successful Counterterrorism Operation in Somalia’ (26 January 2023) www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/press-briefings/2023/01/26/background-press-call-by-senior-administration-officials-on-a-successful-counterterrorism-operation-in-somalia/.

78 Idrees Ali, Phil Stewart and Ismail Shakil, ‘U.S. military operation kills Islamic State leader in Somalia – officials’, Reuters (27 January 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/us-military-operation-kills-islamic-state-leader-somalia-officials-2023-01-26/.

79 Abdi Sheikh, ‘Somalia’s neighbours to launch new operations against al Shabaab militants’, Reuters (2 February 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/somalias-neighbours-launch-new-operations-against-al-shabaab-militants-2023-02-01/.

80 ‘Somalia hosts regional summit to discuss fighting al-Shabab’, Al Jazeera (1 February 2023) www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/1/somalia-hosts-regional-summit-to-discuss-fight-against-al-shabaab.

81 Nessa, Hasar and Kleczkowska (n 39) 128–29.

82 UNSC Res 2687, UN Doc S/RES/2687 (27 June 2023).

83 Ibid, para 17.

84 Ibid, para 19.

85 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9350 (16 June 2023) 19–20.

86 Letter dated 21 June 2023 from the Permanent Representative of Mali to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/463 (29 June 2023).

87 UNSC Res 2690, UN Doc S/RES/2690 (30 June 2023) paras 1–2.

88 Tiemoko Diallo, ‘Mali rebels warn UN peacekeeping departure will kill peace deal’, Reuters (22 June 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/mali-rebels-warn-un-peacekeeping-departure-will-kill-peace-deal-2023-06-22/.

89 Sabine Siebold, ‘Germany extends military mission to Mali for one final year’, Reuters (26 May 2023) www.reuters.com/world/germany-extends-military-mission-mali-one-final-year-2023-05-26/.

90 Sarah Marsh and Sabine Siebold, ‘Germany resists Malian junta demand for immediate exit of troops’, Reuters (18 June 2023) www.reuters.com/world/germany-resists-malian-junta-demand-immediate-exit-troops-2023-06-18/.

91 Sabine Siebold, ‘Germany prepares for quick withdrawal of troops in Mali’, Reuters (30 June 2023) www.reuters.com/world/germany-prepares-quick-withdrawal-troops-mali-2023-06-30/. See also Miranda Murray, ‘Germany to speed up withdrawal from Mali as U.N. mission ends’, Reuters (28 June 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/germany-speed-up-withdrawal-mali-un-mission-ends-def-min-2023-06-28/.

92 Clea Caulcutt and Laura Kayali, ‘Wagner and Russia are here to stay in Africa, says Kremlin’s top diplomat’, Politico (26 June 2023) www.politico.eu/article/wagner-africa-mali-operations-will-continue-russia-sergey-lavrov-vows/.

93 ‘Niger’s Army Entered Mali in Hunt for ‘Terrorists’: Ministry’, The Defense Post (26 March 2023) www.thedefensepost.com/2023/03/26/niger-entered-mali-terrorists/.

94 David Gritten and Yaroslav Lukov, ‘Al-Aqsa mosque: Violence as Israeli police raid Jerusalem holy site’, BBC (5 April 2023) www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-65184207.

95 Emanuel Fabian, ‘34 rockets fired from Lebanon at Israel in worst barrage in years; Hamas blamed’, The Times of Israel (6 April 2023) www.timesofisrael.com/rocket-warning-sirens-sound-in-israel-towns-on-lebanese-border/.

96 Lucy Williamson and David Gritten, ‘Israel strikes Lebanon and Gaza after major rocket attack’, BBC (8 April 2023) www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-65210045.

97 Official account of the Israel Defense Forces, Twitter (7 April 2023) https://twitter.com/IDF/status/1644153084665274370.

98 Williamson and Gritten (n 96).

99 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9309 (25 April 2023) 28.

100 ‘Deadly Israeli missile strike puts Damascus airport out of service, says Syrian military’, France 24 (2 January 2023) www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230102-israeli-missile-strikes-put-damascus-airport-out-of-service-says-syrian-army.

101 Suleiman Al-Khalidi, ‘Syria says Israel strike puts Damascus airport briefly out of service’, Reuters (2 January 2023) www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrian-state-media-says-israeli-aggression-targets-southern-region-damascus-city-2023-01-01/; Albert Aji, Bassem Mroue, ‘Israeli missile strikes put Damascus airport out of service’, AP (2 January 2023) https://apnews.com/article/politics-syria-government-israel-damascus-b82d775318e74fd2f70305b140fa3e15.

102 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9246 (Resumption 1) (18 January 2023) 8. See also Identical letters dated 2 January 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Syrian Arab Republic to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council, UN Doc A/77/683–S/2023/4 (4 January 2023).

103 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9248 (25 January 2023) 19.

104 Suleiman Al-Khalidi, ‘Israeli missile strikes building in central Damascus, five dead’, Reuters (19 February 2023) www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israeli-missile-strikes-building-central-damascus-several-casualties-witnesses-2023-02-18/.

105 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9272 (28 February 2023) 22.

106 Ruaa al-Jazaeri, ‘Aleppo International Airport out of service due to Israeli aggression’, SANA (7 March 2023) https://sana.sy/en/?p=302850/.

107 ‘Israel launches missile attack on Syria’s Aleppo airport: Gov’t’, Al Jazeera (22 March 2022) www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/22/israel-launches-missile-attack-on-syrias-aleppo-airport.

108 Suleiman Al-Khalidi, ‘Israeli strike hits near Aleppo airport – Syrian officials’, Reuters (22 March 2023) www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israeli-air-strike-targets-syrias-aleppo-airport-statement-2023-03-22/.

109 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9291 (23 March 2023) 17; Identical letters dated 7 March 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Syrian Arab Republic to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council, UN Doc A/77/795–S/2023/181 (10 March 2023). See also UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9309 (Resumption 1) (25 April 2023) 15.

110 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9313 (27 April 2023) 18–19.

111 ‘Syria says Israeli missiles target sites near Damascus’, Reuters (29 May 2023) www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-says-israeli-missiles-target-sites-near-damascus-2023-05-28/.

112 Ibid.

113 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9333 (30 May 2023) 20 and 22.

114 Eric Schmitt, ‘American Contractor Killed in Drone Attack on Base in Syria’, The New York Times (23 March 2023) www.nytimes.com/2023/03/23/us/politics/syria-drone-attack-us-base.html.

115 US Department of Defense, ‘U.S. Responds to Attack That Killed U.S. Contractor in Syria’ (24 March 2023) www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3341127/us-responds-to-attack-that-killed-us-contractor-in-syria/.

116 Ibid.

117 ‘Several more attacks against U.S. bases in Syria after alleged Iranian drone kills American contractor, drawing airstrikes’, CBS News (24 March 2023) www.cbsnews.com/news/syria-airstrike-us-contractor-killed-iran-drone-attack-joe-biden-lloyd-austin/.

118 Letter dated 27 March 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/227 (28 March 2023).

119 Letter dated 31 March 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Syrian Arab Republic to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/240 (5 April 2023).

120 Letter dated 3 April 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/242 (3 April 2023).

121 Michael Callahan, Oren Liebermann, Natasha Bertrand and Haley Britzky, ‘Biden vows US will ‘forcefully protect our people’ as Iranian-backed groups launch more attacks on US troops in Syria’, CNN (25 March 2023) https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/23/politics/syria-suspected-drone-strike-us-contractor-killed/index.html.

122 Phil Stewart and Idrees Ali, ‘Six U.S. troops suffer traumatic brain injuries in Syria -Pentagon’, Reuters (30 March 2023) www.reuters.com/world/six-us-troops-suffer-traumatic-brain-injuries-syria-pentagon-2023-03-30/.

123 See, e.g. Nessa, Hasar and Kleczkowska (n 39) 131.

124 See in general The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights, ‘Turkish Forces’ www.syriahr.com/en/category/international-powers-in-syria/turkish-forces/page/29/.

125 ‘Dramatic escalation: 26 people killed and injured in 24 h in attacks by Turkish drones in SDF-controlled areas and areas where Kurdish and regime forces deployed’, The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights (15 June 2023) www.syriahr.com/en/301511/. Even though the title suggests twenty-six casualties, the entry describes sixteen people killed in drone attacks.

126 ‘Unprecedented escalation: 52 people killed and wounded in 15 attacks by Turkish drones in north and east Syria in 12 days’, The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (16 June 2023) www.syriahr.com/en/301595/. Again, the text of the entry suggests twenty-six people were killed instead of fifty-two.

127 Implementation of resolution 2631 (2022): Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc S/2023/58 (25 January 2023).

128 Ibid, para 21.

129 Implementation of resolution 2631 (2022): Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc S/2022/714 (26 September 2022).

130 UN Doc S/2023/58 (n 127) para 22.

131 Ibid, para 23.

132 Ibid, para 26.

133 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9253 (2 February 2023) 20.

134 Ibid, 8, 11–12, 13, 14, 17, 18. See also ‘In Iraq, German minister condemns Iran’s cross-border attacks’, Reuters (7 March 2023) www.reuters.com/world/iraq-german-minister-condemns-irans-cross-border-attacks-2023-03-07/.

135 UN Doc S/PV.9253 (n 133) 16.

136 Letter dated 6 February 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/90 (6 February 2023).

137 Letter dated 16 February 2023 from the Permanent Representative of Türkiye to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/116 (17 February 2023). See also Letter dated 13 March 2023 from the Permanent Representative of Türkiye to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/190 (14 March 2023); Letter dated 12 May 2023 from the Permanent Representative of Türkiye to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/349 (15 May 2023).

138 Identical letters dated 1 March 2023 from the Chargé d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Iraq to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/167 (2 March 2023).

139 Identical letters dated 11 May 2023 from the Chargé d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Iraq to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/344 (12 May 2023).

140 Implementation of resolution 2631 (2022): Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc S/2023/340 (11 May 2023) para 18.

141 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9324 (18 May 2023) 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16.

142 Ibid, 17.

143 USCENCOM, ‘CENTCOM Month in Review: The Fight Against ISIS in Iraq and Syria’ (2 February 2023) www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3286799/centcom-month-in-review-the-fight-against-isis-in-iraq-and-syria/; USCENTCOM, ‘February 2023 Month in Review: The Defeat ISIS Mission in Iraq and Syria’ (3 March 2023) www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3317960/february-2023-month-in-review-the-defeat-isis-mission-in-iraq-and-syria/; USCENTCOM, ‘CENTCOM Month in Review, March 2023: The Fight Against ISIS in Iraq and Syria’ (4 April 2023) www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3351042/centcom-month-in-review-march-2023-the-fight-against-isis-in-iraq-and-syria/; USCENTCOM, ‘April 2023 Month in Review: The Defeat ISIS Mission in Iraq and Syria’ (5 May 2023) www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3384314/april-2023-month-in-review-the-defeat-isis-mission-in-iraq-and-syria/; USCENTCOM, ‘CENTCOM Month in Review: The Fight Against ISIS in Iraq and Syria’ (6 June 2023) www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3419207/centcom-month-in-review-the-fight-against-isis-in-iraq-and-syria/; USCENTCOM, ‘June 2023 Month in Review: The Defeat ISIS Mission in Iraq and Syria’ (6 July 2023) www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3449326/june-2023-month-in-review-the-defeat-isis-mission-in-iraq-and-syria/.

144 David S Cloud, Michael Amon, ‘Iraqi Prime Minister Supports Indefinite U.S. Troop Presence’, The Wall Street Journal (15 January 2023) www.wsj.com/articles/iraqi-prime-minister-supports-indefinite-u-s-troop-presence-11673785302?mod=world_major%202_pos2; ‘Iraq prime minister al-Sudani backs continued US troop presence’, Al Jazeera (15 January 2023) www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/15/iraqi-prime-minister-al-sudani-says-us-troop-presence-needed.

145 Letter dated 3 January 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/9 (3 January 2023).

146 Ibid.

147 Letter dated 1 February 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/78 (1 February 2023).

148 Letter dated 1 March 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/165 (2 March 2023).

149 Letter dated 9 May 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc S/2023/339 (12 May 2023), 1.

150 Ibid, 1.

151 Ibid, 2.

152 Letter dated 10 February 2023 from the Permanent Representative of Azerbaijan to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/77/737-S/2023/101 (10 February 2023), 1; Nailia Bagirova, ‘Azerbaijan strongly protests to Iran after fatal embassy shooting’, Reuters (27 January 2023) www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/guard-killed-shooting-azerbaijans-embassy-iran-2023-01-27/.

153 UN Doc A/77/737-S/2023/101 (n 152) 1.

154 See, e.g. US Department of State, ‘Condemning the Attack on the Azerbaijani Embassy in Tehran’ (27 January 2023) www.state.gov/condemning-the-attack-on-the-azerbaijani-embassy-in-tehran/; France, Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs, ‘Iran/Azerbaijan – Attack against the Embassy of Azerbaijan in Tehran (28 January 2023)’ www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/iran/news/article/iran-azerbaijan-attack-against-the-embassy-of-azerbaijan-in-tehran-28-jan-23.

155 Letter dated 26 April 2023 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General and the President of the Security Council, UN Doc A/77/970-S/2023/539 (20 July 2023).

156 Bagirova (n 152).

157 Emanuel Fabian, ‘Egyptian policeman kills 3 IDF soldiers in border shootings; is shot dead’, The Times of Israel (3 June 2023) www.timesofisrael.com/two-israelis-hit-by-gunfire-in-incident-on-egyptian-border/.

158 ‘Three Israeli soldiers, Egyptian security officer killed in border gunfire incident’, Reuters (3 June 2023) www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/two-wounded-security-incident-along-israel-egypt-border-israeli-media-2023-06-03/.

159 Chinese Embassy in Turkey, ‘The Law on Foreign Relations of the People’s Republic of China’ (1 July 2023) http://tr.china-embassy.gov.cn/tur/sgxw/202307/t20230701_11106580.htm.

160 These Five Principles were first established in an Agreement Between the Republic of India and the People’s Republic of China on Trade and Intercourse Between Tibet Region of China and India (29 April 1954) www.commonlii.org/in/other/treaties/INTSer/1954/5.html.

161 Chinese Embassy in Turkey (n 159).

162 Ibid.

163 Ibid.

164 Joseph Borrell, ‘My view on China and EU-China relations’, The Diplomatic Service of the European Union (13 April 2023) www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/my-view-china-and-eu-china-relations_en.

165 G7 Japan 2023, ‘Foreign Ministers’ Communiqué’ (18 April 2023) www.mofa.go.jp/files/100492731.pdf.

166 ‘China says ready to ‘smash’ Taiwan self-rule as US prepares major arms package, sends advisers’, AP (16 May 2023) https://apnews.com/article/us-china-taiwan-military-b7d7f4e8ee181301b0b0ceefc1dce74b.

167 Ibid.

168 Mutual Defense Treaty (1952) 177 UNTS 133.

169 Karen Lema, ‘U.S. issues guidelines on defending Philippines from South China Sea attack’, Reuters (4 May 2023) www.reuters.com/world/us-issues-guidelines-defending-philippines-south-china-sea-attack-2023-05-04/.

170 US Department of Defense, ‘The United States and the Republic of the Philippines Bilateral Defense Guidelines’ (3 May 2023) https://media.defense.gov/2023/May/03/2003214357/-1/-1/0/THE-UNITED-STATES-AND-THE-REPUBLIC-OF-THE-PHILIPPINES-BILATERAL-DEFENSE-GUIDELINES.PDF.

171 Nessa, Hasar and Kleczkowska (n 39) 149.

172 Ibid, 149–50.

173 United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc S/2023/41 (17 January 2023) paras 7–8.

174 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9247 (24 January 2023) 15–16.

175 Ibid, 17.

176 Ibid, 18.

177 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9311 (26 April 2023) 18–19.

178 Ibid, 20.

179 Security Council Press Statement on Haiti, UN Doc SC/15277 (8 May 2023) https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15277.doc.htm.

180 United Nations Integrated Office in Haiti: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc S/2023/274 (14 April 2023) para 13.

181 Kate Chappell, ‘Jamaica willing to take part in military intervention in Haiti, PM says’, Reuters (1 February 2023) www.reuters.com/world/africa/jamaica-willing-take-part-military-intervention-haiti-pm-says-2023-02-01/.

182 Ibid.

183 Government of Canada, ‘Canada deploys CP-140 long-range patrol aircraft to support Haiti’ (5 February 2023) www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/news/2023/02/canada-deploys-cp-140-long-range-patrol-aircraft-to-support-haiti.html.

184 Ibid.

185 Alexander Ward, ‘GOP embraces a new foreign policy: Bomb Mexico to stop fentanyl’, Politico (10 April 2023) www.politico.com/news/2023/04/10/gop-bomb-mexico-fentanyl-00091132.

186 Ibid.

187 Lindsey Graham, ‘Graham: “We Are Going To Unleash The Fury And Might Of The U.S. Against These Drug Cartels”’ (7 March 2023) www.lgraham.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/press-releases?ID=A86EA474-0423-4160-974D-EBCEB3C8F6E7.

188 Brendan O’Boyle, ‘Mexico president rejects ‘irresponsible’ calls for US military action against cartels’, Reuters (9 March 2023) www.reuters.com/world/americas/mexico-president-rejects-us-lawmakers-calls-military-intervention-against-2023-03-09/.

189 Randall Hill, Phil Stewart and Jeff Mason, ‘U.S. fighter jet shoots down suspected Chinese spy balloon’, Reuters (6 February 2023) www.reuters.com/world/us/biden-says-us-is-going-take-care-of-chinese-balloon-2023-02-04/.

190 US Department of Defense, ‘Statement From Secretary of Defense Lloyd J. Austin III’ (3 February 2023) www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3288535/statement-from-secretary-of-defense-lloyd-j-austin-iii/.

191 US Department of Defense, ‘Senior Defense Official and Senior Military Official Hold an Off-Camera, On-Background Press Briefing Update on the High-Altitude Surveillance Balloon’ (4 February 2023) www.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript/Article/3288618/senior-defense-official-and-senior-military-official-hold-an-off-camera-on-back/.

192 Ibid.

193 Ibid.

194 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China, ‘The Foreign Ministry Issues Statement on the US Claim of Downing a Chinese Unmanned Airship’ (5 February 2023) www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/202302/t20230205_11019871.html. See also Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China, ‘Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Mao Ning’s Regular Press Conference on February 7, 2023’ (7 February 2023) www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xwfw_665399/s2510_665401/2511_665403/202302/t20230207_11021532.html.

195 Heather Chen and Wayne Chang, ‘China says it ‘reserves the right’ to deal with ‘similar situations’ after US jets shoot down suspected spy balloon’, CNN (5 February 2023) https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/04/asia/beijing-reacts-us-jets-shoot-chinese-spy-balloon-intl-hnk/index.html.

196 Letter dated 3 January 2023 from the Permanent Representative of Japan to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc S/2023/1 (3 January 2023).

197 UNGA Res 2625 (XXV), UN Doc A/RES/2625 (24 October 1970).

198 UN Doc S/2023/1 (n 196) 2–3.

199 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9241 (12 January 2023); UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9241 (Resumption 1) (12 January 2023).

200 UN Doc S/PV.9241 (n 199) 9.

201 Ibid, 19.

202 Ibid, 22.

203 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9308 (24 April 2023) 27.

204 UNSC Verbatim Record, UN Doc S/PV.9345 (13 June 2023) 20.

205 Ibid, 18.

206 G7 Japan 2023 (n 165). See also The White House, ‘G7 Hiroshima Leaders’ Communiqué’ (20 May 2023) www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/05/20/g7-hiroshima-leaders-communique/.