Effects of urban expansion on the surrounding agricultural communities of the southern Ethiopian town of Jajura

ABSTRACT

This study used a mixed research design for several reasons. Firstly, the researchers used longitudinal data from open-source remote sensing satellite imagery dating back at least 30 years to study urban expansion into rural farmland. Then, the researchers used cross-sectional data from household surveys, where data collection tools such as questionnaires and structured interviews were utilized. A simple sampling procedure was used to ensure the representativeness of homogeneous target group households. The survey data was analyzed with SPSS software, and the urban-to-farmland extent was investigated with Landsat satellite images and observation intervals every 10 years for the last 30 years. The key finding of this study was that urban expansion is encroaching onto farmland, negatively impacting household livelihoods. It is recommended that urban expansion should be managed and minimized and that cooperation with the communities in the study area is an important issue. The study emphasizes the significance of comprehending the implications of uncontrolled urban development on rural communities in Ethiopia, using a mixed research approach comprising both longitudinal and cross-sectional data. The research demonstrates that expanding cities are having a considerable impact on agricultural livelihoods and require delicate handling to mitigate their unfavorable influence.

KEYWORDS:

• Communities
• compensation
• displacement
• peripheral farming
• urban expansion

1. Introduction

Urban development and land cover changes are arguably the most dominant global issues facing the developing world, with the impacts being felt more significantly in Asia, Africa, and South America. The rapid increase in population and economic growth has increased land demand in these regions and enhanced urbanization, leading to significant changes in land cover and land use patterns. As a result, the challenges around urban development in developing countries have emerged as a major concern for sustainable urban and economic development. For example, in Africa, urban expansion has led to deforestation, land degradation, and biodiversity loss and, in turn, caused soil erosion, greenhouse gas emissions, and water pollution. The lack of technical expertise, planning instruments, and regulations has led to the growth of informal settlements and slums with inadequate infrastructure and services (Tacoli, 2020). The unsustainable urban expansion has also led to an increase in poverty and inequality as urbanization has failed to provide job opportunities, social services, and adequate housing for the urban poor (UN-Habitat, 2018). Furthermore, the unchecked urban expansion has put a strain on natural resources and exacerbated the degradation of ecosystems, further compromising the resilience of cities to climate change impacts. Additionally, the inadequate provision of basic services in informal settlements and slums has resulted in health hazards and increased vulnerability to disasters, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and inequality for marginalized urban populations.

Urban expansion refers to the growth and spread of urban areas, which occurs due to various factors, such as population growth, economic development, and natural disasters. In Ethiopia, urban expansion has been a significant trend over the past decades, with the urban population growing at an average rate of 4.28% per year between 2007 and 2019. According to the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency (2019), the urban population in Ethiopia has increased from about 4.7 million in 1984 to 21.6 million in 2019, accounting for 20% of the total population. This growth has been fueled by various factors, including rural-urban migration, natural population growth, and government policies aimed at promoting urbanization and economic development. The expansion of urban areas in Ethiopia has been accompanied by several challenges, such as inadequate social services, insufficient infrastructure, and environmental degradation. For example, rapid urbanization has led to increased demands for housing, which has resulted in the proliferation of informal settlements in many urban areas. Environmental degradation has also been a significant concern, with urbanization leading to deforestation, soil erosion, and air pollution. To address these challenges, the Ethiopian government has implemented various policies and strategies aimed at promoting sustainable urban development. For example, the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP II) focuses on improving the living standards of urban residents through the provision of basic services, such as water supply, sanitation, and health care (UN-Habitat, 2020). Additionally, the Ethiopian Urban Development Policy (2015) emphasizes the need for a well-planned urbanization process that promotes economic growth, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion. In conclusion, urban expansion is a significant trend in Ethiopia, with the urban population growing at a steady rate over the past decades. While this growth offers opportunities for economic development and improved living standards, it also poses significant challenges that require effective policies and strategies to be addressed.

Urban expansion is a global phenomenon that can be traced back to the Babylonian civilization (Firew, 2021). The nature of urban expansion includes both horizontal and vertical expansion and the result is the loss of agricultural land. Uncontrolled sub-urban growth has sparked worries about the loss of large areas of forest, agricultural land, and open space, and the degradation of the pleasure and satisfaction of existence (Streutker, 2019). The rate of urbanization in Africa is 3.5% per year, the highest rate in the world. In 1980, only 28% of Africans lived in cities; by 2030, that figure is expected to rise to 50% (UN, 2018). Urbanization in Africa has had numerous negative consequences for both urban and pre-urban farm communities (Nigussie, 2018).

In Ethiopia, only 19% of the population lives in urban areas (UN, 2018). However, such rapid growth is no longer frequently accompanied by development assistance in socioeconomic services and infrastructure. Ethiopia’s unplanned human settlement development, as well as the socioeconomic and ecological consequences of urbanization, are poorly documented and underrated. However, urbanization and urban development in Ethiopia faced a wide variety of socio-economic problems (G/Egziabher, 2007). The town of Jajura is one of the fastest growing in southern Ethiopia. This ongoing expansion system captures the views of peripheral farmland and property in the town.

Although the vast majority of city dwellers benefit from the economic consequences of urban growth, they have severe negative consequences for many farmers and the surrounding poor (Baye, 2010. Urban expansion plays a role, leading to spontaneous growth displacing neighboring rural farming communities (G/Egziabher, 2007). Farmers per urban area are most affected by the costs of urbanization (Addisu, 2015). In addition, urban expansion causes a shift in policies and livelihoods in the village.

The town of Jajura is one of the fast-growing urban centers in southern Ethiopia. Farmland around the town of Jajura is becoming less and less due to this urban sprawl and land segregation, which in turn is forcing the displacement of the peripheral farming community. In this regard in Hadiya Zone from the study area, most people account major percentage. The study focused on the impact of the urban expansion of the city of Jajura on peripheral agricultural communities. In addition, the study mainly focuses on examining the coping mechanisms of households who have been evicted from their farmland.

By 2030, cities in developing countries will account for 81 percent of urban humanity (UN-Habitat, 2010). This growth has significant implications for land-use patterns, energy and water use, and socio-economic aspects of household consumption and inequality (Cohen, 2005). Urban growth is a combination of three basic processes. The first is rural-urban migration, rural-urban migration, and rural-urban categories. Rapid urbanization is presently taking place in developing countries in general and in countries with the lowest levels of economic development in particular. Urban expansion and associated social and ecological changes remain the subject of public debate and active policy-making. As such, there is no specific theory to study the impact of urban expansion on rural farming communities in urban neighborhoods. Urban expansion consequently leads to social, environmental, and economic problems for society (Balchin, 2008).

Urban expansion results in displacement, dislocation, and segregation of urban neighbors in general and neighboring farmers in particular which results in social makeup disorder (Carter, 2007). It affected the main farmers, who moved to the cities in search of a better life and job opportunities, and harassed casual workers, leading to threatening problems of urban growth in slums (Rashid, 2012 Periphery communities may face problems of survival strategies, solidarity networks, and power systems that tie social and economic activities to their original location.

As a regular means of waste disposal, urban waste relies on roadside drains, open canals, and holes in the ground, particularly in growth areas. This exposes the dwellers to sanitation-related disease and air pollution. Most residents face relatively high living costs and also limited job opportunities in the area. The challenge is even greater for displaced farmers as they lose their livelihoods (Todaro, 2010). Urban centers expand by occupying fertile farmland, and the displacement of peasants causes production levels to fall and the number of family farmers to move to nearby urban centers (Dayong, 2004). In Ethiopia, urban expansion in cities like Jajura has led to the displacement of farmers and the loss of agricultural land. This has resulted in social, economic, and environmental problems, including sanitation-related illnesses, decreased production levels, and a lack of job opportunities for displaced farmers. Despite the challenges that urban expansion poses, there is a lack of specific theories to study the impact of urban expansion on rural farming communities in urban neighborhoods. As such, there is a need for more research in this area to assist policymakers in addressing the negative consequences of urban expansion on peripheral communities.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Description of the study area

The study was conducted in Jajura town, Soro District, Hadiya Zone, and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Regional State of Ethiopia, which is located between 7° 28’N latitudes and 37° 46’ E longitudes and is 250 kilometers far from the country capital Addis and 7 kilometers from Hadiya Zone (Figure 1). Jajura town has a total area of 768 hectares and an estimated population of 18,000 people, with the majority engaged in agriculture as a means of livelihood. The town is characterized by rugged terrain with rolling hills and valleys with various hills and ridges varying in elevation from 1931 to 2241 meters and has a semi-arid climate with two main rainy seasons from March to May and September to November. The vegetation in the area mainly consists of savannah grasslands and scattered deciduous trees, with some areas covered by crops such as maize, teff, and sorghum. The town has basic infrastructure such as a hospital, schools, and a police station, and is accessible by a road that connects it to other nearby towns and the regional capital, Hawassa. Additionally, Jajura town has a market center where farmers and traders sell their products, providing the residents with an opportunity to purchase necessities. The town’s residential areas are mainly concentrated in the central part of the town, with scattered households in the surrounding hills and valleys. The town is predominantly inhabited by the Hadiya ethnic group, who speak the Hadiya language, although Amharic and other languages are also spoken. Despite having basic infrastructure, Jajura town faces challenges in terms of access to clean water, sanitation, and healthcare services. As a result, the town has a high prevalence of water-borne diseases and other health challenges. The study area’s unique topography and socio-economic characteristics make it an ideal site for investigating the impact of climate change on the water resources and livelihoods of the local population.

Figure 1. Study area.

2.2. Research methodology

This study used a mixed research design. To begin, the researchers used longitudinal data from open-source remote sensing satellite images from the USGS website (earthexplorer.usgs.gov) for at least 30 years to identify urban expansion toward rural farmland. Second, using cross-sectional data from household surveys, the researchers examined the causes and consequences of urban expansion on farmland communities. Data was collected using tools such as questionnaires, interviews, and observations. A simple random sampling technique was used to ensure the representativeness of the target group of households experiencing problems in the surrounding area of the Jajura town’s 1st Jajura Kebele, Bamboo Kebele, and 2nd Jajura Kebele. In each surrounding Kebele, a list of the displaced households was generated from recorded documents of the Kebele administration. The total number of households in the study area is 10,200. The registered number of farmers evicted from their land was 600 since 2008 (Bamboo Kebele 75, 1st Jajura Kebele 240, and 2nd Jajura Keble 285). From this, the researchers sampled 86 respondents using the formula developed by Kothari (2004). The mathematical expression of the formula is as follows:

$\mathbf{n}=\frac{{\mathbf{Z}}^2.\mathbf{q}.\mathbf{p}.\mathbf{N}}{{\mathbf{e}}^2\left(\mathbf{N}-1\right)+{\mathbf{Z}}^2.\mathbf{q}.\mathbf{p}}$

$n=\hspace{0.17em}\frac{{1.96}^2\ast 0.93\ast 0.07\ast 600}{{0.05}^2\left(600-1\right)+{1.96}^2\ast 0.93\ast 0.07}$

$\mathbf{n}\mathbf{=}\mathbf{85.36}\mathbf{=}\underset{\_}{\underset{\_}{\mathbf{86}}}$ (Bamboo Kebele 15, 1^st Jajura Kebele 33, and the remaining 38 household heads from 2^nd Jajura Kebele were selected for this stud (Bamboo Kebele 15, 1st Jajura Kebele 33 and the remaining 38 heads of households from 2nd Jajura Kebele were selected for this study)

The expansion of urbanization into farmland has been recorded for 30 years with satellite imagery and observations at 10-year intervals. The researchers accomplished this by classifying the images and identifying changes over time using a geospatial technology tool. Tables, charts, and bar graphs have been used to analyze the data gathered through household interviews. With a Landsat spatial resolution of 30 m, the remote sensing data is processed and it is possible to observe urban growth and 10-year cycles of image categorization without cloud fluctuations. Satellite images from NASA remote sensing were used for this (Landsat 5 TM for 2002, Landsat 7 TM for 2012, and Landsat 8 (OLI) for 2022). The satellite image is processed through image resolution extraction layers based on spectral resolution and using ArcGIS 10.8.

3. Results and discussion

The built-up areas of the cyan-colored town of Jajura are clear boundaries by vegetation in Figure 2‘s composite false-color images from 2002, 2012, and 2022 (Reddish color). The composition of false color in the classification and interpretation of the satellite imagery into specific land use/land cover categories was applied through image enhancement and the display of false color composition and natural color composition bands and derivation of the NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) Landsat images. A composite false color display of green, red, and near-infrared bands from Landsat TM 5 (January 2002), Landsat TM 7 (January 2012), and Landsat 8 (January 2022) displayed the imagery of the area.

Figure 2. False color Landsat images of Jajura town of the year 2002, 2012, and 2022.

Figure 3 shows that the town is expanding rapidly, exceeding the town limits and consuming farmland in the town of Jajura.

Figure 3. Urban expansion on farmland between,2002, 2012, and 2022.

Table 1 shows that from the urban expansion on farm land communities expands rapidly with 49.7 hectares (84.3%) in 2002, 115.2 hectares (106.1%) in 2012, and 165 hectares (279.9%) in 2022. Cropland, on the other hand, reduced by 22 hectares (927.1%) from 2002 to 2012, changed by 15 hectares (161.7%) from 2012 to 2022, and rapidly changed or declined by 6.9 hectares (292.5%) from 2002 to 2022. Grassland declined similarly cropland in each interval of the year 2002–2012, 43 (504.5%), the change in 2012–2022 was 26.6 (107%), and the year interval 2002–2022 was completely changed to 16.4 (192.1%). As a result, urban expansion was expanded within each year’s interval, causing declination or changes in the entire physical environment in Jajura town.

Table 1. Percentages of land use/land cover change in the town 2002 –2022.

	Change 2002		Change 2012		Change 2022
Land use/land cover change types	Hectares	%	Hectares	%	Hectares	%
Waterbody	88	90.6	44.7	44.6	43.3	31.8
Woodland	−51.2	−24.0	−0.8	−0.5	−52.0	−24.4
Grassland	16.4	192.1	26.6	107.0	43.0	504.5
Bare land	−65.1	−13.1	−200.7	−46.5	−265.8	−53.5
Cropland	6.9	292.5	15.0	161.7	21.9	927.1
Built-up Area	49.7	84.3	115.2	106.1	165.0	279.9
Total	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0

Figure 4 clearly illustrates the percentage change in land use/cover on grassland, plantation, bare land, cropland, and rural settlement gains and losses due to urban expansion between 2002 and 2012, highlighting the importance of grassland and cropland as major losses and gains of the urban area.

Figure 4. Land use and land cover changes over the period 2002–2012.

Table 2 and Figure 5 illustrates the change in land use/land cover from 2012 to 2022: plantations 44.7 hectares (10.5%), grasslands −0.9 hectares (−0.2%), bare land 26.6 hectares (6.3%), cropland −200.7 hectares (−47.3%), rural settlement 15 hectares (3.5%) changed to the urban built-up area 115.2 hectares (27.2%). This demonstrates that cropland, vegetation, and grasslands experienced significant declination as a result of urban expansion in the study area. As a result, the findings concluded that there is a high increase in urban expansion on farmlands in Jajura town.

Figure 5. Land use and land cover change in hectares gain and loss over the period 2002–2022.

Table 2. Land use and land cover change during 2012–2022.

	Persistence		Gains		Losses		Net change
	Hectares	%	Hectares	%	Hectares	%	Hectares	%
Plantation	99.2	21.9	85.8	20.22	−41.1	−9.7	44.7	10.5
Grassland	9.0	2.0	152.1	35.84	−152.9	−36	−0.9	−0.2
Bare land	10.7	2.4	40.8	9.622	−14.2	−3.3	26.6	6.3
Cropland	221.9	49.0	9.1	2.153	−209.8	−49.5	−200.7	−47.3
Rural settlement	3.1	0.7	21.1	4.981	−6.2	−1.5	15	3.5
Urban built-up area	108.6	24	115.3	27.18	−0.1	0.0	115.2	27.2
Total	452.6	100	424.3	100	−424.3	−100	0	0

According to Table 3, the persistence or land coverage was plantation 58.9 hectares (16.7%) between 2002 and 2022, with gains of 126.2 hectares (24.06%), losses of −38.2 hectares (−7.3%), and a net change of 88 hectares (16.8%). Grassland increased by 24.3 hectares (6.9%), lost by 1888.8 hectares (36%), and the net change was −52 hectares (−9.9%). Arable land increased by 204 hectares (57.9%), bare land increased by 5.5 hectares (1.6%), losses were 3.0 hectares (−0.6%), and the net change was 43.0 hectares (8.2%). The Rural settlement was 0.7 hectares (0.2%), gains were 23.5 hectares (4.486%) and losses were −1.6 hectares (−0.3%), resulting in net losses of 21.9 hectares (4.2%). Losses were −292.8 hectares (−55.8%) and gains were 27 hectares (5.14%). This gain and loss as a result of rapid urban expansion on farming communities were 58.9 hectares (16.7%) of this gain 31.46 hectares and the net change was larger and increasing between 2002 and 2022.

Table 3. Land use/land cover change during 2002–2022.

	Persistence		Gains		Losses		Net change
	Hectares	%	Hectares	%	Hectares	%	Hectares	%
Plantation	58.9	16.7	126.2	24.06	−38.2	−7.3	88	16.8
Grassland	24.3	6.9	136.8	26.08	188.8	−36	−52	−9.9
Bare land	5.5	1.6	46	8.775	−3	−0.6	43	8.2
Cropland	204.	57.9	27	5.143	−292.8	−55.8	−2658	−50.7
Rural settlement	0.7	0.2	23.5	4.4.86	−1.6	−0.3	21.9	4.2
Built-up area	58.9	16.2	165	31.46	0.0	00	165	31.5
Total	352.4	100	524.4	100	524.4	100	0.0	00

Figure 6 depicts the change in land use/land cover from 2002 to 2022, as well as the change in gains and losses for each category, and the net extent of urban expansion results in built-up areas accounting for 31% of gains.

Figure 6. Land use and land cover changes over the period 2002–2022.

Figure 7 summarizes the extent of urban expansion in hectares over 30 years using Landsat 5, Landsat 7, and Landsat 8 data. The Jajura town’s urban built-up area expands by an average of 59 hectares in 2002, 109 hectares in 2012, and 224 hectares in 2022.

Figure 7. Trend of urban expansion.

The results of Figure 8 show that 45.35 percent of respondents agreed that urban expansion caused segregation in neighborhood relationships. Urban growth disrupts family interactions, according to 31.40% of respondents, urban growth in the town creates cultural distortions, according to 20.93% of respondents, and has other consequences, according to 2.32% of respondents. Urban expansion hampered the transmission of their information, which shapes that social link and this proved to be quite beneficial in the focus group discussion. As a result, there is a significant negative impact of urban expansion on the social lives of households in the study area.

Figure 8. Effects caused by urban expansion.

4. Conclusions and recommendations

Urban expansion, among other urban-related issues, has recently become a concern for local governments in developing countries. Poor municipal services, a lack of committed leadership, a lack of environmental awareness, and poor residential waste management are the major underlying causes of environmental problems in the study area due to poor and unplanned urban expansion. The most significant social consequence of urban expansion is increased competition for jobs, while the least significant is the loss of traditional ways of life. The economic consequences of urbanization include, among other things, a lack of basic services and a high cost of living. Sustainable urban expansion necessitates the development of appropriate legislation that can serve as a governing document in urban land management issues, improved land use planning, participatory land management, political commitment, and a proper land administration system by the town municipality of Jajura.

The main objectives of this study are to find the causes of urban expansion, examine the extent of urban expansion toward surrounding farming communities, assess the impact of urban expansion on surrounding farming communities, and evaluate the coping mechanisms of displaced households in the study area. To assess the impact of urban expansion on the social environment, to investigate the effects of urban expansion on the economic environment, and to identify changes in the livelihoods of peripheral households as a result of urban expansion in the town.

As a result, there is an observable change in land use/land cover in the study area from 2002 to 2022, with the built-up area increasing from 49.7 hectares (84.3%) in 2002 to 115.2 hectares (106.1%) in the year 2012 has increased by 165 hectares (279.9%) in 2022. Cropland decreased by 22 hectares (927.1%) between 2002 and 2012, changed by 15 hectares (161.7%) between 2012 and 2022, and rapidly changed or decreased by 6.9 hectares (292.5%) between 2002 and 2022. Similarly, grassland decreased by 43 (504.5%) arable land in each year interval 2002–2012, the 2012–2022 change was 26.6 (107%), and the 2002–2022-year interval was fully reduced to 16.4 (192.1%) reduced. As a result, urban expansion increased within each annual interval, resulting in a decline or changes in the overall physical environment in the city of Jajura. The extent of urban expansion in hectares over 30 years using Landsat 5, Landsat 7, and Landsat 8 data. The urban built-up area of Jajura town increased from 59 hectares in 2002 to 109 hectares in 2012 and 224 hectares in 2022. This increase suggests that the town has experienced significant growth and development over the past two decades. However, this growth has come at a cost, as it has led to a decline in natural habitats such as cropland and grassland. This indicates the need for a more sustainable approach to urban development that takes into account the preservation of natural resources and the environment. The analysis of remote sensing data provides valuable insights into land use changes and can help inform future urban planning decisions.

Migration, access to infrastructure facilities, and demographic dynamics were the main drivers of urban expansion in the study area, resulting in high demand for urban land. With the increasing demand for urban centers, more forest and arable land close to the city is needed. The dramatic decline in agricultural land threatens the way of life for farming communities. Effective land use and land management strategies are strongly advocated to prevent the loss of agricultural land due to the rapid horizontal expansion of cities. In addition, sound policies at the local level are urgently needed. This policy should pay attention to public participation, not only to facilitate plan approval but also to monitor the impact of the implemented development plan on local communities.

In conclusion, the study highlights the negative impact of unplanned and unregulated urban expansion on the environment, economy, and social fabric of the town of Jajura. The results of the study demonstrate that urbanization puts pressure on the natural resources and traditional livelihoods of peripheral communities. The study also emphasizes the importance of sustainable urban development that prioritizes environmental protection, social inclusion, and economic growth. The findings of the study can be used to inform policy-making and urban planning decisions aimed at achieving sustainable development in Jajura and other similar towns in developing countries. It is recommended that local governments take proactive measures to regulate urban expansion, develop appropriate land management strategies, and engage in participatory planning processes that involve all stakeholders, especially peripheral communities. Moreover, there is a need for ongoing monitoring and evaluation of land use changes using remote sensing data to guide urban development and environmental conservation efforts. Overall, this study reinforces the need for sustainable urban development that considers the social, economic, and environmental well-being of all communities. Planning and policy-making processes should prioritize local participation and community engagement, taking into account the needs and perspectives of peripheral communities. By adopting sustainable urban development practices, local governments can ensure a better quality of life for their citizens while preserving the natural environment and promoting economic growth.

In general, the study finds that urban expansion poses the greatest threat to the study area, as it expands at the expense of other land-use types. Therefore, the following recommendations must be taken into account.

• Geospatial technology must be integrated into an appropriate urban land management policy for effective land use. As a result, it is recommended that the acknowledged bodies incorporate these technologies into future urban development plans to mitigate the effects of urban horizontal expansion on various land uses/covers.

• To reduce the extreme loss of farming, vertical city expansion is recommended. In addition, more attention should be paid to agricultural land; therefore, the entity concerned should have drawn up a local development plan with strong involvement of the local community.

• Urban planning authorities and town planners should consider the town’s future growth and understand the consequences of unbalanced physical urban growth, as well as public service and infrastructure supply.

• So far, the urban expansion program has revealed that communities were not informed of the process and did not take part in its planning or implementation. The municipality should set aside a sufficient budget from its annual revenue to offer the infrastructure services that newly settled neighborhoods sorely lack to prevent escalating the already precarious environmental condition in the town’s urban expansion-affected area. As a result, to ensure long-term urban development, the government should plan carefully before displacement.

• Appropriate compensation should be sought to replace the resource base of evicted households. Before displacement, livelihood initiatives such as skill development, training, and awareness should be provided to families in peri-urban areas to help them diversify their income.

• Before the expansion, the majority of peripheral communities’ economies were based on agricultural activities, though they gradually shifted to other activities due to the issues raised in previous sub-topics. Given that most communities are unable to adopt urban livelihoods, it is recommended that stakeholders be subsidized to participate in their businesses through skill-oriented training for new livelihood strategies and exemplary use of finance strategies.

• The expansion of towns into per-urban areas changed the community’s livelihood strategy from farming to non-farming, although farming had been the only livelihood strategy in which the more uneducated community had been engaged for a long time. Thus, livestock as an income source for the affected community should be replaced by a few research-based livestock reproduction techniques.

• Develop appropriate legislation that can serve as a governing document in urban land management issues.

• Improve land use planning and participatory land management to better manage urban expansion.

• Increase political commitment to sustainable urban development and environmental protection.

• Establish a proper land administration system to monitor and regulate land use changes.

• Foster public participation and community engagement in planning and decision-making processes.

• Monitor and evaluate land use changes using remote sensing data to guide urban development and environmental conservation efforts.

• Promote sustainable land use practices that prioritize the preservation of natural resources and the environment.

• Provide basic services and infrastructure for urban residents to reduce the cost of living and improve their quality of life.

• Develop sound policies at the local level that ensure public participation and monitor the impact of development plans on local communities.

• Protect and support traditional lifestyles and livelihoods of peripheral communities while promoting economic growth.

Overall, the recommendations suggest the need for a holistic approach to urban development that addresses the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of sustainability. This includes the use of geospatial technology for effective land use management, vertical expansion to reduce farmland loss, community participation in urban planning, provision of infrastructure and services for newly settled neighborhoods, appropriate compensation and livelihood initiatives for displaced households, diversification of income sources for peri-urban communities, and research-based approaches to livestock reproduction for affected communities. It is hoped that these recommendations will inform policy-making and urban planning decisions that promote sustainable development in Jajura and other similar towns in developing countries.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).