Sustainable architectural design and land-use application to civic centres in Ghana: the case of Damongo

ABSTRACT

The country’s ever-growing population and numerous administrative areas and centres for decentralisation, good administration, and efficient use of the country’s resources have allowed for the construction of several administrative buildings. However, these spaces are typically modified or do not meet the architectural and planning criteria of administrative centres due to shortcomings in planning standards as well as a lack of sustainable design standards and principles. Using an observational data collection method and qualitative research methods, the results of the study examined the appraisal of the proposed design. The study proposed a sustainable design that would help minimise the usage of vast lands for only administrative purposes and provide developable lands for the fast-growing urban population. The study analysed three sites for their suitability. Details of the proposed design are emphasised in the rest of the paper.

KEYWORDS:

• Sustainable Architecture
• sustainable design
• sustainable land-use
• civic administrative centre
• Damongo

1. Introduction

Land and other natural resources are important resources for human and infrastructure development. The sustainable use of the Earth’s finite land and natural resources is becoming a matter of life or death for humankind. Since the 1990s, the sustainable utilisation of land and other natural resources has been addressed continuously through research in most countries, particularly developing ones (Zinck & Farshad, 1995). In more recent times, Ghana has experienced rapid urbanisation, especially in the smaller cities than the large ones, increasing from only nine towns with populations between 50,000 and 100,000 in 2000 to 36 in 2010 (GURR, Ghana Urban Review Report, 2015). This rapid urbanisation of settlements and regions over finite land areas has propelled various research into ways of optimising land-use to ensure sustainable and efficient development. Due to the rapid urbanisation of some of the small towns because of their location, resource availability, and other factors that could be used as stimulants for development, it will be prudent to plan their administrative structures, especially those of the new regions, to accommodate and manage their resources efficiently and effectively. Again, due to rapid urbanisation and ineffective management of urban lands, urbanites are compelled to develop in the so-called cheaper lands such as the buffers of rivers (Biliyitorb Liwur et al., 2023; Liwur et al., 2023). Upon developing in these naturally sensitive areas, they pollute the waterbodies by discharging their liquid waste and solid wastes into these waterbodies (Ali et al., 2009).

Secondly, most of the buildings acting as administrative centres are retrofitted (have outlived their periods) and hence do not aid in the effective performances of various outfits that work out of these administrative centres. This therefore leads to ineffective decentralisation and a loss of productivity and does not facilitate the development of the jurisdictive areas of these administrative centres (Boye, 2007). These factors sum up as the main reasons for low productivity at the local level since there is a disconnect between the priorities of these administrative centres and their jurisdictive areas. This goes a long way towards inhibiting the smooth transfer of information and other relevant developmental processes for the physical development of such places, leading to a dichotomy between communities’ development priorities and their administrative centres’ priorities. Oduro-Ofori (2011) also suggests that one of the key challenges facing most institutions (in this case, administrative centres) is that some of the facilities that must address the infrastructural inadequacies are either dilapidated to the extent that buildings are converted to underserved purposes, resulting in great inadequacies in their infrastructure provision. Adding to that, aside from the problems of retrofitted spaces (spaces with low performance) and inconsistent expansion of little towns into urban areas, there are inadequate comprehensive planning and spatial requirements to help in the siting and development of new administrative centres. Therefore, administrative centres must be poised in terms of design, energy efficiency, and sustainable characteristics to be able to lead and set the example for the emulations of their jurisdictive areas.

Memoranda have long been the sources of guidance for spatial planning and zoning in Ghana, and they clearly define and outline land sizes, land-use activities, and zoning guidelines for the establishment of various institutions in Ghana (ZGPS, 2011). The Town and Country Planning Ordinance, CAP 84 of 1945, and other technical memoranda also provide and spell out the considerations that must be considered and the zoning requirements showing uses that are permitted and prohibited in various land-use zones (ibid.). These definitions are not clear and objective enough in establishing some of the various institutions in the country, and for that matter, administrative centres, to ensure the optimisation of land resources and, most importantly, to reflect sustainable design principles in their establishment.

The evolution of buildings as administrative centres in the country over the years has made it very significant to carry out this study. The ever-growing population and division of the country into several administrative regions and centres for decentralisation, proper governance, and efficient utilisation of the country’s resources have made it possible for several administrative buildings to be built. Technological advancements have also played a role in the ease with which administrative centres can be set up, buttressing the issue of decentralisation and proper governance systems. Yet these spaces are mostly retrofitted or do not fulfil the architectural and planning requirements of administrative centres due to the inadequacies of planning standards as well as the lack of sustainable design standards and principles.

The town of Damongo, where the base model of this research will be situated, is the regional capital of the newly created Savannah Region of Ghana. The town also houses the biggest game reserve in the country and will experience an influx of people and activities such as civics and administration because of its role as the regional administrative centre and capital. These influxes of activities and people, urbanisation, and the natural increase in population will lead to a competing demand for land and other resources, leading to the destruction of lots of natural vegetation. Hence, it is justifiable to conduct the study to unearth the various sustainable land-use principles, especially for the growing civic and administrative activities to preserve the natural environment. The outcomes of this study will enrich the body of literature and support academic discourse and general city sustainability discourse.

This study is structured in six broad parts. Part 1 is introductory, and Part 2 explains the existing theoretical and conceptual literature on sustainable architectural design and land-use planning and management. Part 3 focused on the research materials and methods used for this study, including the state of the community, and Part 4 presented a proposed sustainable architectural design for the study. The final part (5) concludes the research report.

2. Review of sustainable architectural design and land-use planning

2.1. Conceptualising sustainable land-use planning and management

Land-use planning, also referred to as physical planning, spatial planning, or rarely referred to as ‘principles of use of land’, has myriad definitions (Cobbinah et al., 2020). These definitions differ in the context and the discipline in which they are used. Many researchers (such as Cobbinah et al., 2020) have expressed various schools of thought on the subject matter. This therefore makes the concept very open in its definition and application, and most of the definitions and concepts are dependent on the author’s schools of thought, perspectives, and discipline to which it is applied.

The various schools of thought surrounding this concept admit that it is difficult to box these concepts into one unified and accepted definition, but they recognise the various definitions based on the appropriateness and sustainable use of scarce resources through comprehensive planning. Petersen (2002) explains this concept as the process of reaching a balance between the complete demand functions of the urban precinct in a limited urban space. The balance of both the complete demand functions and the limited urban space could therefore mean that the concept promotes and ensures ‘order in the use of land or the designation and regulation of the use of land’. This order and regularisation of the use of land will lead to the appropriation and sustainable use of land for communities.

Mitchell et al. (2004), in their exploration of the concept, state that ‘planning the uses of land provides the statuary legal means of control over the change of use of land while allowing land-use appropriateness’. Thus, it offers the opportunity to allocate land-use to areas best suited for dedicated activities, inevitably leading to achieving a balance between environmental spatial units. On the other hand, Cullingworth and Nadin (2006) explain the concept as more concerned with the ‘twin problem of coordination or integration of uses of land and, however, applying the use of land principles through a territorial-based strategy using various dimensions of sectorial policies’. AUMA (Alberta Urban Municipalities Association), 2007) expands that it is the comprehensive planning of land using different and diverse processes of planning, which are often linked to efficiency, equity, and sustainability. They also suggest that it involves the planning of the use of land, the locations of activities, the concentration of such activities, and the use of land as a determinant for development.

This explanation of the concept, also substantiated by the UNECE (2008), states that the concept is an interdisciplinary activity involving planning the use of land, identifying the measures for improving the existing physical structures, as well as determining the location of activities and the execution of such physical structures for development. Jha et al. (2010) define this concept as ‘the designation and regulation of the uses of land to achieve improvements in the well-being, socioeconomic, and physical development of a community through public policy frameworks’.. This means that community developments are dependent on the regulation and designation of land-use.

In light of the above definitions, land-use planning may be explained as a statutory government instrument for the management of the use of land in the process of urban development to achieve goals and objectives in promoting a more sustainable, convenient, accessible, attractive, and equitable pattern of development for the public interest. The definition summarised is in line with the concept of sustainable use of land resources, which is ‘to achieve sustainability, convenience, and harmony in the use of space for all uses of land. Achieve economy and efficiency in the use of resources and space; enhanced safety and adequate health standards in the space economy; and enhanced aesthetics and serenity in the built environment’ (Amponsah, 2011).

2.2. Conceptualising sustainable architecture

The rate of depletion of the earth’s finite resources due to the developmental needs of humankind has negative repercussions for the future generation of man. This has made it obvious that unless there is a change in the way the earth’s resources are being exploited and used, the future of humankind is oblique. Sustainable use of our resources should be the theme of this century to ensure the survival of the next generation (Wu, 2010). Most recently, the concept of sustainability has become the common interest of numerous disciplines and organisations due to the urge to ensure the survival of the earth. The concept of sustainability is broad, as its definitions are varied depending on the authors’ schools of thought.

Brundtland (1987) defines the concept of sustainability as ‘meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. The view of human predicaments gradually prompted people to consider sustainable development and utilisation of their natural resources, leading to the extension of sustainable development theories to the various developmental strategies for the efficient utilisation of resources in our societies (Brundtland, 1987). This broad idea has prompted and led many organisations to initiate developmental strategies such as the Sustainable Development Goals, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), Kyoto Protocol, Green Building Challenge (GBC), and the United Nations Habitat conferences and reports (UN-Habitat,1996). In the built environment, various concepts such as ‘green architecture’, ‘green design’, ‘ecological design’,, ‘eco-friendly architecture’,, and ‘sustainable design’ have been initiated to broaden the scope of sustainability related to buildings and the built environment.

The complexity of the concept presents it with no straightforward solution and makes it open to various ways of reaching the goal. However, the concept has varying benefits, such as pollution reduction, conservation of natural resources, and the prevention of environmental degradation while reducing the impact on local infrastructure (Roy, 2008). For this study, the terms green architecture,“‘green design’, ‘ecological design’,, ‘eco-friendly architecture’,, and ‘sustainable design’ are used interchangeably and mean the same thing. According to Roy (2008), ‘green architecture’,“‘green design’, ‘ecological friendly architecture’,, and ‘sustainable design’ can best be explained as a comprehensive approach to building that has few adverse effects on human health and the entire environment, with attempts to safeguard air, water, and the earth by choosing environmentally friendly practices and energy concerns.

Sustainable architecture can also be explained as the concept of understanding and employing environmentally friendly practices such as ventilation systems designed for efficient heating and cooling, energy-efficient lighting and appliances, and water-saving plumbing fixtures. They may also include landscapes planned to maximise passive solar energy, minimal harm to the natural habitat, alternate power sources such as solar power or wind power, non-synthetic, non-toxic materials, locally obtained wood and stone, responsibly harvested woods, adaptive reuse of older buildings, use of recycled architectural salvage, and efficient use of space (Burcu, 2015).

2.3. Sustainable architecture and building

According to the USGBC U.S (2002), the approach to designing a sustainable building should satisfy certain criteria, which are sustainable site development, sustainable material selection and minimization, energy efficiency, water efficiency, and indoor air quality. While not all the criteria might be met in a particular building, the highest aim is to achieve most of the criteria to ensure that the building is sustainable. Similarly, the World Green Building Council (2014) expands that for a building to be sustainable, it must satisfy the following criteria:

• The general development of the site must have minimal effects on the natural environment by employing shading, taking advantage of solar access, shape, and orientation, as well as the prevailing wind direction, to reduce heat gains in the building;

• The materials for construction should be locally available, durable, and recyclable to reduce negative impacts on the environment, as well as encourage the practice of reuse;

• The building must be energy-efficient to create comfort and economical running. It must take into account natural technology as well as conserve natural resources;

• Indoor air quality must be high and enhanced to promote a healthy and productive working environment;

• Water efficiency and usage should be encouraged to ensure its sustainable use. Water-saving plumbing equipment, rainwater harvesting, recycling of grey and black water, and minimal use of underground water should be key to ensuring the preservation of water in the environment.

Additionally, these sustainable principles must be symbiotically related to form the basis for the approach to sustainable design. Thus, environmental efficiency, efficient use of materials and resources, water efficiency, energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality, and sustainable site design should provide the conditions necessary for a building to be classified as a sustainable building, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The conditions of a sustainable building.

Source: Authors’ Construct (2023)

According to Kats (2006), green buildings are not simple developments but rather an approach to designing a building that meets the needs and demands of a particular time and setting with numerous benefits. Some of the benefits include enhanced comfort, a lower operational cost of building, enhanced aesthetics, and environmental responsiveness to both site and setting. The implication of sustainable architecture cuts across a range of activities that relate to the environment, social lifestyle, and the economics of saving and high costs. Some of the enumerated benefits include an increase in productivity, improved health, a reduction in the cost of running and operating a building, minimization of resource waste, better use of materials, and environmental protection (Amany et al., 2015). The benefits of sustainable architecture can be summed up into three arms, thus linking social, economic, and environmental factors, as shown in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. The three arm benefits of green architecture.

Source: Authors’ Construct (2023)

2.4. Civic architecture and its characteristics

Administrative centres are necessary for the execution of various government tasks, including those of decentralisation and local government, and hence must exhibit roles of public interest. The peculiar development of such buildings as administrative centres is most often monumental in style, reflects the aspirations of the people, has a traditional style, and encompasses the spirit of the community (Conway & Roenisch, 2005). Expressively, Conway and Roenisch (2005) suggest that such administrative centres must be subject to good design principles that reflect proper planning and designed spaces, forms, and auras of ambience that reflect on three key principles. These principles are:

• Functional (facility must provide for ample spatial requirements that are functional and dynamic);

• Aesthetics (the building must provide the opportunity for a sense of pleasantness and coherent and intrusive spaces); and

• Symbolic (the building should define a geographical area identity).

Various theories have arisen as to the establishment of these administrative centres over the past centuries. These theories are widely related to the definite purposes of architecture and democracy, architecture and power, and civic architectural concepts explored over the various periods of change in our societies (O’Connor, 2016). In contrast, Kinuthia (2011) suggests that, unconcerned with the social ideologies, ideas, and philosophical nature of societies, architectural modes and styles, together with trends in fashion, take over societies with the neutrality of technology.

Symbolically, societies have tried to establish their form of administrative architecture, ranging from the ideals of the society in which they evolved to the construction of town halls in Great Britain and Scottish towns in Europe to Washington, Chicago, and New York in America. In establishing the relationship between architecture and democracy, architecture and power, and civic architecture as concepts that embody the prime soul, ideals, and ideologies of a society, as explained by O’Connor (2016), Valentine and Jencks (1987) expand that architecture was a key element in the design of the Agora and Piazza civic grouping of buildings in ancient Greece. This, he explains, represents the power of the people as the emblem of democracy. This stresses the fact that modern-day democracy, which became the beacon of power for modern-day democratic nations and a mechanism for strengthening local government, was invented in the ancient Greek cities of Agora and Piazza. ‘Architecture played an important role at the Agora, the Civic Centre of the City, which housed the government buildings where democracy was first invented’. Civic buildings should be deliberately monumental, and decorated while retaining their formal look to portray the sense for which they have been put up and remain the focal point of development. Even though older cities and districts have continued to scatter and spread buildings that perform government functions, civic buildings should be situated close to each other to ensure administrative efficiency (Kinuthia, 2011; Vale, 2006).

Additionally, Charles Goodsell’s book ‘The Social Meaning of Civic Space’ comprehensively details how public administration buildings act as civic spaces, though the study concentrates much more on internal space configurations. This examination, even though parallel to the establishment of town hall systems in the United Kingdom, only details the internal layouts and designs of chambers for public admiration in American cities. The examination points out four distinct characteristics of administrative centres: ownership or control by the state or by agents of the state (vested in the interest of the citizens of particular jurisdictive areas), accessibility to outsiders, function, and degree of enclosure.

The design of administrative centres took on a much broader function than just being spaces of broader administrative function by assuming the function of the scope of central governments’ commitment to extend services local authorities provide on behalf of them in the later parts of the 20th century. This new outlook redefined the change in the function of these local administrative centres from being mainly occupied with the physical and economic development of their jurisdictive areas to a more sophisticated one of ensuring the well-being of all citizens in their jurisdictive areas. On the contrary, in Ghana, the development of

Administrative centres developed on the lines of ‘indirect rule’ established by the British Colonial masters, maintaining the chief palaces as the administrative centres of the various jurisdictive areas. Fast forward to post-independence, when successive governments redefining the unitary states of government established new administrative centres parallel to the chief palaces for the administration of jurisdictive areas.

In addition to providing the space needed for governors or leaders to conduct the community’s affairs and transact business, administrative centres serve multiple purposes and are multi-functional. They serve as centres of a community’s political life and the primary symbol of the whole community, and they aid in improving the relationship between the government and the public. The role and functions of administrative centres have resulted in more or less development, and hence, the type of buildings’ layout, environmental quality, and characteristics of showing administrative services have put forth new requirements for their setting up. Today, in many towns in Ghana, the location of government offices and residential quarters for public officials is quite distinguishable from the surrounding neighbourhoods and settlements.

3. Research materials and methods

3.1. Study setting

The geographical scope of the research is in Damongo. Damongo is the capital of the west Gonja district, one of the seven districts in the newly created Savannah region. It also doubles as the capital of the newly created Savannah Region. The Savannah Region is bordered on the north by the Upper West region, on the west by the Ghana-Côte d’Ivoire international border, on the south by the Bono and Ahafo regions, and on the west by the North East and Northern regions (GSS, Ghana Statistical Service, 2019).

The natural environment, namely vegetation, relief and drainage, location and size, and social and cultural structure, are the main physical features that affect the lives of the people living in Domongo Township and the entirety of the West Gonja District. The physical features are therefore essential elements or factors affecting the socio-economic development of the district (GSS, Ghana Statistical Service, 2019). Damongo, which doubles as the district capital of West Gonja and the capital of the newly created Savannah Region, is located to the west of Tamale, the capital of the Northern region. It has bearings of 10 5’and 20 58’ to the west and 80 321 and 100 2’ north. Damongo is bordered by the Central Gonja District to the south, to the west by the Bole and Sawla-Tuna-Kalba Districts, to the northwest by the Wa East district, and to the east, north Gonja Districts. The west Gonja District is partially occupied by the Mole National Park and Kenikeni Forest Reserves (ibid.). Figure 3 shows the map of Ghana with newly created regions and the location of Damongo in reference to the newly created Savannah Region.

Figure 3. Damongo in the regional and national context, Ghana.

Source: Authors’ Construct (2023)

Damongo has an undulating topography with an altitude of 150–200 metres above sea level, with the escarpment to the north of it as the only highland. Two rivers (the White Volta and the Mole River) run across the region, joining Tuluwe (Central Gonja District). The White Volta serves as the boundary between the south and southeast of the district (ibid.).

Temperatures in Damongo (West Gonja District) are generally high during the dry season (harmattan) between March and April and lowest in December and January. On average, monthly temperatures rise to 27 degrees Celsius. The dry season is mainly characterized by dry season is characterised by the Harmattan winds, which are dry, dusty, cold in the morning, and very hot at noon, with high evaporation causing soil moisture deficiency. During harmattan, dry skin and cracked lips occur in humans. Rainfall is bimodal, with the average annual precipitation being 1,144 mm. The rainfall pattern is erratic, beginning in late April and ending in late October. The peak of rainfall is in June or July, with a prolonged dry spell in August. The rains are stormy and torrential, up to 300 mm per hour, causing erosion and floods (ibid.).

The housing stock of West Gonja District is 6,369, with 6,255 households, the majority of which are rural. Rural households account for 2,976; the rest are in urban areas. The district has a population of 6.5 people per household, compared to 9.6 in the region. Single-story buildings form a majority of 95% of all dwellings in that jurisdiction, with only 5% being single-story. The predominant building form is rectangular or square compound housing, with 65%; the ‘L’ shaped buildings constitute 20%; the ‘I’ shaped buildings constitute 10%; and the remaining 5% of the buildings are circular (ibid.).

Mud is the main material for the construction of the outer walls of dwelling units in the district, with over 70.5% of buildings made up of such materials. With more than eight in ten (83.1%) outer walls of buildings in rural localities constructed with mud bricks or earth blocks, more than eight in ten (80.2%) floors are constructed with cement or concrete in the district. The predominant material for roof construction is corrugated aluminium roofing materials, accounting for over 58.7% of dwelling units in the district (ibid.).

Feeder roads form a major chuck of the trunk’s road in the district. The main trunk road in the district, which is the Sawla-Damongo-Fufulso road, is constructed with bitumen surfacing. The total feeder road length is 154.1 km. 81.2 km are engineered, and 72.9 km remain non-engineered (ibid.).

Waste disposal is an issue in the district as it is evolving from a rural to an urban or peri-urban locality. Dumping is the most widely used method of solid waste disposal, which is done indiscriminately and accounts for 33.7%. About 33% of households also dump their solid waste by publicly dumping it in the open space, with only about 8.7% of households accounting for organised refuse collection by waste management companies. For liquid waste disposal, throwing waste onto the compound (46.0%) and throwing it onto the street or outside (40.9%) are the two most common methods used by households in the district (ibid.).

GSS, Ghana Statistical Service (2019) states that 71% of total households in the locality use borehole, pump, or tube well water for other domestic purposes, while 7% of other households use river or stream water for the same purposes. In both urban and rural areas, boreholes, pumps, and tube wells remain the dominant sources of water for domestic purposes, with shares of 87% and 54%, respectively. In urban areas, unprotected wells, rivers, streams, dug-outs, ponds, and dams account for 4%, 3%, and 2% of the usage by residents. On the other hand, the rural areas have unprotected wells; river/stream and pond/dam also account for 5%, 12%, and 16% of usage, respectively. Hence, the next largest source of water for domestic use in rural areas apart from boreholes is dugouts, ponds, dams, and lakes, compared to the next best for urban areas, which are unprotected wells (ibid.).

3.2. Research methodology

The study used multiple sources of relevant literature on sustainable architecture and sustainable land-use planning and management to help achieve the study objective of designing a model regional administrative centre to address the dispersed nature of civic administrative centres in Ghana to meet 21st-century requirements. Data for the study was grounded on direct observation by the researchers. This was to add the researcher to be abreast with the situations on the ground. A ground truthing of the review on the state of the study community was conducted.

The study employed a qualitative technique to collect data, which included site documentation and analysis, observation, and interviews with city planners, architects, and staff from similar administrative structures. Reference projects were also consulted to determine the project’s brief and spatial requirements. The collected data was synthesised, and inferential spatial requirements and standards, such as ‘Architects’ Data” (Ernest Neufert’s handbook), ‘The Architect’s Handbook’, edited by Quentin Pickard, and the Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards of Ghana (2016), as elaborated by Groat & Wang (2013), were used to gather data for architectural research purposes. For the selection of various sites and the evaluation of sites, the growth pattern of the town was studied, and situational analysis was performed on all three possible sites to select the best site for the simulated design project.

Various tools are employed in the design of structures in the built environment industry. Data was synthesised using content analysis to determine the frequency of spaces required and their relevance in a 21st-century office design by architects and spatial users of similar office structures in local case studies. The project was modelled using Revit Architecture 2019 software, and the same software was used for simulating spaces and creating the draft concept. Basic AutoCAD was employed for the production of floor plans. Additionally, Lumion 11 was used to render the project, providing a realistic view, while CorelDRAW was used for post-rendering purposes of the project.

4. Sustainable architectural design for civic centres

The Model Regional Administrative Centre was designed as an office space for workers in the public sector working at the regional scale. It is expected to accommodate all critical decentralised departments of regional status co-located within a radius of 200 metres, which will optimise land size. It captures 21st century spatial requirements as a form of setting standards on office capacities, worker’s welfare, building heights, and spatial planning development to cater for public sector officers on a regional scale.

4.1. Site selection criteria, site inventory, and analysis

In the site selection criteria for the Model Regional Administrative Centre, three sites were identified to be analysed based on their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Sustainability, size of land, and locational considerations were factored into the selection of the site. One very critical factor was the need for the site to fall along the growth pattern and expansion of the town. The growth pattern along the settlement is to ensure that the administrative centre falls in the core of the town and not on the fringe. While considering the permitted and prohibited spaces stipulated in the Town and Country Planning spatial planning document, Fig. 4(a,b) illustrate the sites to be developed for the scheme. A comparative study and analysis of the three sites were rated and awarded marks. The rating was based on ten (10) key considerations, with 5-point criteria for ranking and a 5-point weighted factor rating system. The total results, which are the sum of the products of the 5-point criteria, the 5-point weighted system, and the 10-point selection criteria, must not exceed 250-points. The site with the highest score is the best of the three. Ultimately, site- 3 was chosen because it satisfied all criteria and was more ideally located. The results point towards the study of Handayanto et al. (2017), which enumerates the use of a land use optimisation strategy as a method for achieving sustainable urban form and design of public areas, and Jenks et al. (2000), who stipulates the acceptability of urban intensification in achieving sustainable urban form.

Figure 4. Site selection criteria. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

Figure 4. (Continued).

The site chosen (site three) is undeveloped and not occupied. The site stretches and elongates from the Damongo-Fufulso road to the north and the Damongo-Canteen (hospital) road to the west. Inventories in and around the site include trees and shrubs. Analysis on site revealed the challenges, strengths, weaknesses, and threats that were present to find solutions. The site was assessed to help with building orientation against solar ingress, harsh weather conditions, and local construction techniques and materials to use in terms of soil viability to support the facility. The site slopes gently from west to east and north to south, making possible considerations for a workable topography for a good drainage system.

The site is visible from all angles, thus being found at a node easily identified on the Damongo-Fufulso road and the Damongo-Canteen (hospital) road. One intervention required to improve the site and its surroundings was to propose a dual-carrier road on the Damongo-Canteen (hospital). Figure 5(a,b) illustrate the inventory and analysis of the site.

Figure 5. Site inventory and analysis. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

Figure 5. (Continued).

4.2. Brief development and accommodation schedule

Findings from the survey indicated the absence of facilities within public sector offices. There was a need to identify these facilities to accommodate 21st-century office demands. The brief development was obtained from literature, several case studies, and the views of the respondents as they selected their aspiration for a future office they would like to work in. The model administrative centre containing these broad areas is explained in detail. They include:

Central Administrative Block: This area contains the typical coordinating council offices and its traditional departments. It houses both the political head, his deputies, and the chief director and his deputies, with segregated break rooms, syndicate rooms, and conferences, and it is the tallest and chief building.

Central Block: The central block contains the main entry point, information desk, security screening points, security and fire posts, and an infirmary. It also contains the ICT centre and other virtual rooms serving as temporary office spaces. The social areas serve as interactive spaces for people and the main point of contact for workers, as well as outdoor discussion areas.

Departmental Blocks: These are decentralised departments of the regional coordinating councils. These house all the regional heads of the various decentralised departments at the regional level that the regional coordinating council will need to supervise, coordinate, and assist in delivering development to the people. These departments are linked together, respecting both vertical and horizontal colocation principles.

Recreational Areas/Open Courtyards: These areas provide workers with the opportunity to take time off to have leisure and interact with nature. Aside from the usual break rooms, it is important to link workers to nature.

In accordance with the findings of Oduro-Ofori (2011), Vale (2006), and Kinuthia (2011), this is one of the most significant obstacles administrative centres must surmount: inadequate infrastructure at certain facilities. Consequently, administrative centres must be predisposed with regard to design, energy efficiency, and sustainable attributes in order to serve as models for the imitation of their respective jurisdictions.

4.3. Design philosophy and concept

The architectural design philosophy employed in the design was archi-decentralisation, derived from the three broad concepts of architecture and democracy, architecture and power, and architecture and politics. The philosophy ensures location-specific distribution of administrative centres where administrative centres with their decentralised departments are not more than a 200-metre radius of the Central Administration with shared ancillaries and shared collaboration. The design proposal in the setting is integrated into the site to harmonise with its surroundings. The architectural design concept incorporated in the proposal is “critical regionalism, which considers the surrounding vernacular architecture. It involves a critical synthesis of a region’s history, traditions, and architecture and their reinterpretation of these in modern terms, as shown in Fig. 6(a,b).

Figure 6. Design philosophy and concept. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

Figure 6. (Continued).

Scholars such as Conway and Roenisch (2005), Vale (2006), and Kinuthia (2011) provide support for the formulation of the philosophy of design. They contend that administrative centres should incorporate well-planned and designed spaces, shapes, and ambiance auras that embody functionality, aesthetics, and symbolism. Furthermore, this design philosophy adheres to the recommendations put forth by Post (2001) and Gyampo (2018) that administrative centres in Ghana ought to possess enhanced and cohesive coordination. This stands in contrast to the present state of dispersed administrative and civic centre establishments.

4.4. Site planning

The site planning for the proposal considered functional relations, access, possible site entry points, parking areas, and service routes. The spatial planning concept dealt with the facilities that had to do with the vertically sprawling developments. Several landscape options and zones were developed to consider private, public, and semi-private areas on the site, taking note of accesses and slopes in the form of conceptual sketches as shown in Fig. 7(a,b). The results of site planning align with the assertions made by Oduro-Ofori (2011) that the effectiveness of planned administrative centres in Ghana is not accurately reflected in the status of dispersed centres from their respective departments. This is due to the considerable distance that these administrative centres have from the central administration, which complicates coordination and monitoring.

Figure 7. Conceptual sketches. Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

Figure 7. (Continued).

4.5. Structure and construction of proposed design

The structural optimisation of the building is made up of a double hydroponic column system with plants to serve both aesthetics and reduce radiation from the sun and heat gains. The makeup of the floor system is a waffle slap system to minimise numerous internal columns and to help host ceiling air conditioner chillers. The make-up of the building façade is specified with stabilised earth or bricks. Major features of the design include a green roof that serves as an interactive space for workers and discussions. The façade general holds a ventilated-faced system hoisted to buttress (columns) to reduce solar ingress into the building (see Figure 8(a,b).

Figure 8. (a) Structure and construction details. (b) Structure and construction-ventilated façade details.

Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

4.6. Sustainable consideration of the proposed design

The design employs an alternative water supply in the form of boreholes and an alternative power supply in the form of photovoltaics. A ventilated façade treatment system is employed to cut down on heat emissions entering the building. This proposal included the use of sustainable materials found in the area (brick, stabilised earth, and stone) and also the use of passive design principles, as shown in Fig. 9(a,b). Andrea (2011) and the World Green Building Council (2014) cite these environmentally conscious design elements as characteristics that contribute to the sustainability and productivity of contemporary workplaces.

Figure 9. (a) Sustainable interventions of Proposed design. (b) Sustainable consideration of Proposed design.

Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

4.7. Services of proposed design

Provision of Electricity for Proposed Design: Electricity in the entire facility was provided using a centralized voltage stabilizer to ensure that a stable voltage is maintained despite the fluctuations caused by the power flows. The alternative power used in the design is solar panels. It converts solar radiation into electric energy that is stored and used (see Figure 10b).

Figure 10. (a) Sewage management for the Proposed design. (b) Electricity and water Provision for Proposed design.

Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

Water Provision for Proposed Design: Boreholes have been dug to provide water that is pumped and distributed to overhead water tanks for use by the facility. The design incorporated rain-harvesting strategies that were stored underground and filtrated in the substation that houses the pumps and filtration tanks (see Figure 10b).

Fire Safety for Proposed Design: Management of fire in the design proposal, assembly points in every facility, and major areas of the site are provided, especially open spaces like courtyards, parking areas, and civic parks. These are the possible escape areas to go to using paths directed to the open public areas. Fire alarms were indicated in the design and located throughout the entire facility on the site. Fire extinguishers are located inside and outside the building at a vantage point that is visible. Hose reel standpipes that are connected to water are located near entrances and exits. The location of fire hydrants is located at a distance of 120 metres and connected to the fire monitoring unit.

Sewage Management for the Proposed Design: Bio-fill digesters were used to manage the sewage on site. Living organisms that are found in the bio-fill chamber decompose the sewage. Affordably, the sewage treatment is suitable for all soil conditions with less maintenance, and solid waste management systems for waste such as paper will be collected regularly (see Figure 10a). This is supported by writers such as Amany et al. (2015), Andrea (2011), O’Connor (2016) as sustainable design strategies for modern civic buildings in general.

4.8. Phasing plan for proposed design

This section deals with how the design will be constructed in stages due to the scale of the project in terms of cost, function, and technique. The phasing makes it easier for the client to understand and plan for the project’s construction. Phase 1 consists of the central administration block; Phase 2 is the canteen and public transport block. Phase 3 consists of a central block, departmental blocks, power, and sewage management hubs. Phase 4 is the civic park, while the external works component falls under Phase 6, as shown in Figs. 11a–f.

Figure 11. (a) Phasing layout. (b) Proposed design-perspective one. (c) Proposed design-perspective two. (d) Proposed design-perspective three. (e) Proposed design-perspective four. (f) Proposed design-perspectives five.

Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

Figure 11. (Continued).

Figure 11. (Continued).

4.9. Costing for proposed design

This section deals with how the design is costed concerning construction. Phase 1, costing Gh¢ 53942,169.6, contains seven levels with other complementary supporting facilities for that particular phase. The cost implications for faces 2 and 3 are Gh¢ 540,000 and Gh¢ 161,826,508.8, respectively. While phase 2 consists of the canteen, taxi ranks, and bus stops, phase 3 consists of the central block, departmental blocks, and service blocks.

Phase 4 consists of a civic park that can contain 3,200 people while costing Gh¢ 6,000,000. The external works for the whole project cost Gh¢ 2,475,628 and consist of gardens, soft landscaping, and hard landscaping while finishing bitumen on the access roads to the facility. The total cost of the project standards is Gh¢ 224,704,307, as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Costing for Proposed design.

Source: Authors’ Construct (2020)

5. Hypothetical reflections, conclusion, and recommendations

The development of buildings as administrative centres in the country throughout time has made this topic extremely important. The country’s ever-growing population and numerous administrative areas and centres for decentralisation, good administration, and efficient use of the country’s resources have allowed for the construction of several administrative buildings. Also, technological improvements have contributed to the ease with which administrative centres can be established, bolstering the problem of decentralisation and adequate governance systems. However, these spaces are typically modified or do not meet the architectural and planning criteria of administrative centres due to shortcomings in planning standards as well as a lack of sustainable design standards and principles.

Against this, the results of the study examined the appraisal of the proposed design by unearthing the various sustainable land-use principles, especially for the growing civic and administrative activities to preserve the natural environment. Given this, the study proposed a new sustainable design for civic administrative uses that helps conserve land for other urban land uses. This design is applicable to both local and international geographies, as its design procedure follows the generic architectural design process.

Ultimately, to improve the capacity and working conditions of public offices in sub-Saharan Africa, it is suggested that guidelines be developed specifically for green administrative structures. The establishment of such criteria should encompass the following: (i) integration of sustainable design principles to mitigate operational expenses of structures; (ii) support for vertical expansion and development through site and land management practices; (iii) utilisation of locally sourced materials to reduce construction costs; and (iv) alignment with the community’s functional, aesthetic, and symbolic aspirations. The aspirations of the communities ought to be mirrored in public administrative agencies and civic centres.

Ethical statement

We submit the manuscript of our article for review and consideration for publication in your esteemed journal. With the submission of this manuscript, we certify that we directly participated in the planning, execution, or analysis of this study; we have read and approved the final version submitted; the contents of this manuscript have not been copyrighted or published previously; and the contents of this manuscript are not under consideration for publication elsewhere.

Informed consent

This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

Acknowledgments

The authors greatly appreciate and acknowledge the value of the authors and participants of the study.

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Data availability statement

Data of this manuscript will be made available upon request

Additional information

Funding

The full cost of carrying out the research was borne by the authors.