Investigating the moral behaviour of public transport users in returning lost but found items

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to explore the likelihood of lost items to be recovered by public transport (PT) users with a focus on the moral values of other PT users in the city of Accra. To achieve this goal, a non-experimental research design was employed to identify the factors influencing PT users’ decisions to return lost items. Data were collected using a revealed preference survey (RP), which was distributed both manually and online using Google Form. The survey consisted of a structured questionnaire with close-ended questions. A total of 603 respondents completed the survey, and the reliability of the questionnaire was verified using Cronbach’s Alpha (CA), yielding a score of 0.804. The study’s findings revealed that religious values (Mean = 4.41, SD = 1.97) and empathy (Mean = 4.37, SD = 1.92) were the two most significant factors that influenced respondents’ decisions to return lost items. Regarding the ‘value of an item’, the high standard deviation indicates that respondents’ perceptions of an item’s value varied greatly and may not have affected respondents decision to return lost but found item. Future research in urban transportation should concentrate on experimental research where reflection of respondents’ true decision to return or keep a found item can be ascertained.

KEYWORDS:

• Public transport (PT)
• economic hardship
• moral behavior
• return of lost items
• public transport users
• religious values

Introduction

Ghana’s medium-term development policy framework is to create a robust road infrastructure, promote sustainable development and enhance transportation for the period 2022–2025 by prioritizing the safety and security of all road users (Ministry of Road and Highways, 2020). This aligns with SDG Goal 11.2 which seeks to ensure that transport systems are accessible, affordable and sustainable for everyone, with a special emphasis on vulnerable groups such as women, children, persons with disabilities, and the aged (Jones et al., 2022; UN AGENDA, 2022). Sam and Abane (2017) found that 40.5% of respondents suffered personal baggage theft as against highway robbery attack, 25.4% and assault, 34.1%. This translates into why 64.1% of PT users feel insecure in using PT in Ghana. This collaborates the extent to which PT users fails to have confidence in retrieving their lost items in PT system which lead to making the system inefficient for users. Transportation providers worldwide are actively improving their services to enhance best practices and reduce road congestion (Karimi et al., 2022; Ng et al., 2019). A reliable and sustainable public transport system not only alleviates congestion but also mitigates air and noise pollution, improves travel time, assures security, safety and decreases accidents annually (Miller et al., 2016; Nguyen-Phuoc et al., 2016; UN AGENDA, 2022). Public transportation is an integral aspect of commuting in many cities worldwide, and efficient systems are key to achieving urban mobility objectives (Bull et al., 2021; EMTA, 2018). EMTA (2018) stated that public transport accounts for 30% of shared trips in major European cities (Booth, 2023). indicated that over 400 million items are lost in the EU’s public transport systems every year and the most commonly lost items include wallets, keys, phones and umbrellas. Some literatures have highlighted the need for more effective lost property processes in the transport sector (Booth, 2023); upon findings that 82% of passengers have left something behind on public transport in the UK (Transport for London, 2019). In the last 12 months, 7.8 million people in the UK have lost 12.8 million items, thus 1,500 every hour on average, constituting nearly £2.2 billion on public transport (Direct Line Group, 2022). One in six adults (15%) has lost property while using trains, tubes and buses in the past year (Salman & Athab, 2022; Wheeler, 2022). Across various African cities, public transport systems handle a diverse range of lost items. Informal PT systems like minibuses (trotros), buses, trains and shared-taxi contribute to the overall number of lost items (Acheampong et al., 2022; Sam et al., 2018). However, comprehensive statistics for the entire continent are challenging to obtain due to varying infrastructure and reporting systems. Ghana’s public transport experiences a significant volume of lost items even though specific data on the exact number of lost items is not readily available. It remains an important aspect of passenger experience and safety (Bull et al., 2021; Jones et al., 2022). A sustainable and reliable PT systems will not only ease on congestion, but also mitigate air and noise pollution, improve travel time for other road users and eventually reduce an annual road crash statistic. PT is central to commuting in many cities around the world (Bull et al., 2021; EMTA, 2018). According to (EMTA, 2018), 30% of share trips are made by PT in the major cities in EU. Likewise (Hidalgo & Huizenga, 2013), indicated that 16 leading countries in Latin America has their average age of shared PT trips to be 44%. According to (National Road Safety Commission [NRSC], 2010), 20.3% of fatalities in Ghana are directly sourced to minibuses and buses while 43.3% is owned to pedestrians. However, motorcycle (locally referred to as Okada) is currently gaining popularity in road crash incidence in Ghana. This according to (Sam & Abane, 2017) obviously will subdue PT mode share and all conscious efforts to promote sustainable PT usage. Consequently, safe PT systems are fundamental to improving safe mobility and social inclusion (Newton, 2014). This will motivate other road users to maximize courage in the patronage of PT services. Any activity that creates a euphoria of insecurity will jeopardize the continual patronage of the services.

In the quest to maximize PT sustainability, PT users need to experience a decent and healthy atmosphere in the PT systems and environment. Sam and Abane (2017) indicated that the fundamentals to such a healthy and decent PT trip is to ensure safety and maximize security. It is fore knowledge that PT system by itself poses some significant safety and security issues as it conveys large passengers in a single trip (Joewono & Kubota, 2006). Secondly, the use of PT increases the possible confrontations of either safety or security (Stafford, 2003). However, according to (Sam & Abane, 2017), a society that appropriates virtues instead of focusing on transportation deficiencies is what causes personal safety and security when using PT services.

Developing countries such as Ghana are highly endowed with religious sentiments and a wide range of religious theories and doctrines. Persons from this background are expected to exhibit good morals and explicit decency of living. Religious and virtues intersect in fascinating ways (James et al., 2009; Sharma & Singh, 2019; Villani et al., 2019), especially in a culturally rich country like Ghana. It is however weird that (Effah, 2022) reported on a taxi driver returning an amount of GHC 8000 to a woman who patronized his services the night before could make headlines. According to (Effah, 2022), a similar instance happened in Liberia where a motorcycle-taxi rider returns an amount of $50,000 to a business woman and the rider was awarded and honoured as a national hero by the President of Liberia, President George Oppong Weah. In Ghana, the taxi driver’s honesty attracted the attention of many high profiled individuals from diverse religious background for such a display of good moral considering the difficult economic situation the entire country was encountering (Effah, 2022). B.B.C. NEWS PIDGIN (2022) reported that the taxi driver was awarded for his integrity by many people and this include the vice president of the Republic of Ghana, HE Dr. Mahamudu Bawumia. Likewise (Adomfm Online, 2022), reported on the religious denomination of the driver, ‘The Church of Pentecost’ celebrated the driver for his good deeds. This development is astonishing on why a society that prioritizes moral standards and values will celebrate an individual returning what is not his aside all the existing religious and moral ethics and practices. Though many express their fortitude of returning the amount despite the prevailing economic condition the country was battling, many drivers and individual were emphatic to state that, they will never have returned the said amount to the woman if they were in such position.

Many research works investigated factors that will enhance the efficient patronage of PT services (Mittal et al., 2016; Poku-Boansi & Adarkwa, 2013; Rasca & Saeed, 2022; Sam et al., 2014). Likewise, some literature also investigated safety and security issues that hamper on public transport patronage (Sam & Abane, 2017). However, little research is known on the moral behaviour of PT users in returning the items of other PT users from passengers and drivers’ perspective. This paper aims to explore the likelihood of lost items to be recovered by PT users in an urban environment, with a focus on the moral behaviours and religious values of these other PT users. Also, the research will underscore the factors that will inform PT users’ decision to return or keep a found item in a PT system.

The paper will be structured as follows: part one is the introduction which focuses on the issues relating to the research problem and the objective of the study. The second part focuses on the literature review and related matters. The third part discusses the research methods used for the study including the data collection process and the sampling strategy while the fourth part also explores the results from the data analysis whiles the fifth part discusses the findings of the paper. In the final part, we discuss the major conclusions of the paper as well as the limitations and the future research recommendations.

Previous related studies

Vuchic (1981) defined public transport as passenger transport that any member of the public may pay to use. Smith & Clarke (2000) in their book, crime and public transport stated that public transport does not refer to the level of privacy in the vehicle itself, to ownership of the level of the service or to any financial support it may receive. Hood (1996) explained Mass Transit as a conveyance that operate along a fixed route, with regular stops, on frequent schedules and with a set rate of fare. Both definitions by Vuchic and Hood provided clearer audience to the difference between public transport and Mass transit.

Moral behaviour and Public Transport

Kamarudin et al. (2019) provided an empirical view on ethical values and moralism of public bus services in Kuantan, Malaysia. The literature found that ethics are of great significance in the transportation industry due to the diverse and socio-cultural relevance of its effect. The study further indicated that high ethics and morality values and characteristics are the expected outcome which leads to the trust and effectiveness of bus services (Kamarudin et al., 2019). In Bogor, Indonesia, Sumaedi and Yarmen (2015) also looked at the impact of moral norms on the behavioural intentions of passengers on public transportation. The literature indicated that moral standards have a positive impact on the behavioural intentions of passengers on public transportation. Moral norms and behaviour have a significantly positive influence on people’s social lives, as shown by (Conner et al., 2006; Nemme & White, 2010; O’Connor & Armitage, 2006; Robinson et al., 2008; Tonglet et al., 2004), even though the findings were not specific to PT users. This research will contribute to literature on the moral behaviour of PT users in returning lost items in a PT system.

Moral behaviour and religious belief

It is not surprising that religion is essential to thought processes and that it helps people develop their sense of self and community, both of which have an impact on attitudes, cultural norms and behaviour, both individually and collectively. Ford and Richardson (1994) explicitly stated that the strength of an individual’s ethical decision-making depends on people’s religious believe and not just mere religious affiliation. In a thorough analysis of their study, Sumter et al. (2018) also discovered that criminal behaviour is suppressed by religion. However, as Sumter et al. (2018) pointed out, the literature does not refute the spuriousness of the religion-crime association in relation to the mediating effects of social control and self-control, nor does it emphasize the mechanisms of religion responsible for suppressing criminal behaviour. In another study, Kirchmaiera et al. (2016) investigate the relationship between religion and moral behaviour and attitudes using data from a representative sample of the Dutch population that includes information about the religious background of the individuals. Their study revealed that religious individuals report higher levels of volunteering and are less tolerant of unethical behaviour. Their preference for redistribution is reportedly lower. On the contrary, Oboh and Omolehinwa (2021) investigated the role of some socio-demographic parameters and ethical decision-making processes using professional accountants in Nigeria. With the aid of a structured questionnaire, the study found that, upbringing, most especially parental discipline and education are important socio-demographic parameters in ethical decision-making processes. Oboh and Omolehinwa (2021) indicated that religion is a socio-demographic parameter that resonates mixed finding on the influence of ethical decision-making. They found that religion did not influence the professional accountants’ ethical decision-making as was by the previous authors (Ford & Richardson, 1994; Kirchmaiera et al., 2016; Sumter et al., 2018). As a result, these findings remain controversial. Hence our study will further seek findings on how religious affiliation will either subvert or enhance public transport users’ willingness to do the right thing as stated by (Ford & Richardson, 1994).

Lost items and public transport

NotLost Press (2020) reported that 82% of PT users leave behind items on public transportation in the UK and regretfully, more than 60% of the PT users do not receive their items back, according to the report. Sam and Abane’s (2017) also investigated into the safety and security of PT users in Cape Coast, Ghana and found that 58.2% of PT users feels unsafe and insecure. This helped to explain why Iles (2005) claimed that public transportation systems, particularly in developing countries, are unsafe. There are items involved in this safety and security scenario in addition to the human element. We hope to contribute to literature by examining the moral obligation of PT users to return lost items, as there has been little research on this topic.

Empathy and moral behaviour

According to Masto (2015), empathy enables us to make better decisions, be more knowledgeable and deal with complex morality situations. Prinz (2011) states that empathy is specifically defined as a type of vicarious emotion or the sensation of feeling what one believes another person to be experiencing. Since empathy can be biased in favor of moral judgment and is not one of the skills needed for moral competence, Prinz (2011) argued that it is not necessary for morality. Additionally, Rowlands (2012) argued that morality does not necessarily require empathy. In light of this, Isern-Mas and Gomila (2019) looked into Prinz’s perspective and discovered that, despite accepting Prinz’s ideas about moral competence and empathy, moral competence still requires empathy. We aim to identify how empathy as one of our primary factors will influence the moral behaviour of PT users to return lost items out of goodwill.

Methodology

Figure 1 below shows the flow chart representation of the data collection methodology. The stage provide vivid account of the study area, describes the data collection instrument and further explains the study design, sampling technique, sampling size, as well as the data source. This further looked at the reliability and validity of the questionnaire and finally the data collection strategy.

Figure 1. Flow chart of data collection methodology.

Case study area and religious distribution

This research focuses on PT users who live in Accra and excludes potential commuters staying outside Accra. Accra is the capital city of Ghana and is Geographically located at the coast sharing boundary with the Atlantic Ocean at the south as shown in Figure 2 below. The total population of the Accra metropolitan area is 2,660,000 (World Population Prospects, 2022) with a growth rate and household size as 2.11% and 2.8 persons per household, respectively (Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 2021). About 95% of the city’s population mobility needs are met by PT systems such as shared taxis and minibuses, or ‘trotros’ (Fouracre et al., 1994; IBIS, 2005; Wilson, 2006). Statistics on urban transport system in Accra shows that buses and minibuses occupy 30% of the road space and carry 75% of passengers, while private automobiles and taxis occupy 70% of the space and carry only 25% of commuters (Institute for Infrastructure Development, IID, 2009). This illustrates a low modal preference for private vehicles at the expense of the majority of people’s remaining road space is being scarce. Accra as a cosmopolitan city is made up of wide range of religious and cultural diversification. Figure 2 below represents the proposed study area of this study.

Figure 2. Map of Accra metropolitan area (Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 2014).

Residents in the city are known for their multi-cultural background and multi-denominational. With the Orthodox (protestant) denominations across the city, Accra can boast of the Pentecostal and Charismatic denominational units. The Seventh Day Adventist (SDA), Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Latter-Day Saints as well as many other denominations that vary based on doctrines and dogmatic principles. Islam is a wide spread religion across the length and breadth of Accra though most Islamists are predominant in the northern part of Ghana. This is highly same for the African traditional religion which propounds it virtues and principle based on traditional believes and ethics. This religious system base it fortunes and practices on heredity concepts and believes in their object of worship. The lists of available religious faiths are not limited to the above listed three. Other religions known but not wide spread in the city include Hinduism, Shintoism, Erckanka etc. Notwithstanding, there are some sections of the city’s population that belong to the Atheist and others who just portray non-religious life-style. Sasu (2022b) on the 2021 population and housing census in Ghana revealed Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians are the largest religious unit in Ghana with a 31.6 percent, which represents 9.7 million of Ghana’s population. This is an increase compared to the 2010 census year. The Islamic region followed with a nation-wide coverage of nearly 20 percent. Moreover, only 1.1 percent of the country’s population had no religious affiliation, and this was a decrease from the 5.3 percent in the previous census year as shown in Figure 3 below. The statistical figures represented by (Sasu, 2022b) indicated that persons without religious affiliations have reduce drastically since 2010.

Figure 3. Religious representation in Ghana (Sasu, 2022b).

With a highly enriched religious society such as Accra, it is expedient and appropriate to have citizens heed to returning lost items to rightful owners as a moral virtue. Such ethics by religiously inclined PT users will engender confidence in other PT users with an assurance of retrieving their lost items. Although Knudten and Knudten (1971) questioned the amount of social control fostered by religion and how religious insights would affect public law, they found that religious fanatic groups abstain from immoral behaviours and criminal activities. Sumter et al. (2018) also established that religion reduces participation in criminal activity and immoral behaviours. Hence, this provides a proof of the sustainability and the impact religion have on moral behaviour in society in this case the PT system.

Study design

The study employed a descriptive and non-experimental survey research design to explore the ‘Yes-I will return’ and ‘No – I will not return’ factors that will influence PT users’ decision. This is because non-experimental surveys remain a valuable tool for research, offering rich insights into real-world phenomena, opinions, and behaviours. It also has the tendency to gather large scale data and investigates subjective phenomena. The main instrument of data collection was the questionnaire. A quantitative approached was adopted and with a descriptive analysis. This required that a rating scheme of factors affecting a decision was ranked from 1 to 6, i.e. never affect to highly affect. The traveling behaviour of the PT users was captured in identifying the traveling characteristics of the respondents. Likewise, religious and economic parameters were employed to ascertain respondents’ religious and economic situations, respectively. The GSS (2021) provided statistical figures showing that 60.4% of Ghana’s population are between the ages of 15 to 64, while 38.2% of the population are from 15 to 35 years. According to GSS (2021), 35.3% of the population are children 14 years and below. With this age distribution, we constituted our age clustering from 15 to 56 since Ghana’s working age starts from 15 years (Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 2023a) and above with 10 years age interval since majority of Ghana’s population are within this age bracket. According to Sasu (2019), the monthly average living wage for an individual in Ghana was GHȻ 900, indicating a GHȻ 40 increase from the previous year. From GHȻ 880 in 2015 to GHȻ 900 in 2018, the country’s average monthly living wage increased. Sasu (2022) stated that Ghana’s daily minimum wage was GHȻ 11.82, up GHȻ 1.17 from the previous year. This figure is almost equal to mean hourly earnings by locality figure of GHC 12.00 for the third quarter of the year 2022 in Greater Accra Region though majority of Ghanaian earn below GHȻ 6.00 hourly rate (Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 2023b). These statistics provide evidence of potentially active individuals within Ghana’s population, and this is representative of the population of Accra. With the low daily wages, the survey clustered personal monthly income from below GHȻ 500.00 to GHȻ 5000.00 and above since majority of Ghanaian work force falls within this income bracket.

In addition, since PT is widely used by majority of persons in both the formal and informal PT systems, the questionnaires were administered to a large spectrum of participants. PT users with various cultural upbringings were the targeted respondents whose feedbacks were instrumental to the study. PT users who are residents of the city of Accra were considered for the data collection. The justification using Accra is to provide much more versatile feedback from participants since Accra is highly cosmopolitan with wide range of religious representations. Likewise, the city of Accra in recent years is experiencing PT users returning left behind items in public transport systems and making headlines in Ghana. Although the sampling was randomly conducted, we ensured a more purposive sampling mid-way to enroll our target population. In this regard, all non-PT users with were excluded from the study. Note that the idea was to enable us understand the existential conditions and collect viable data that explore possible justification why people will return or not return a lost item if found in on a PT.

Sample size determination

We adopted the Krejcie & Morgan sample size table as used by Bukhari (2021) in determining the sample size(s) for the population of Accra cosmopolitan area. Equation (1)(1) $\mathit{s}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}=\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}{X}^2\mathit{N}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\mathit{P}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\left(1\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}-\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\mathit{P}\right)\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}÷\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}{d}^2\left(\mathit{N}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}-\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}1\right)\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}+\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}{X}^2\mathit{P}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\left(1\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}-\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\mathit{P}\right)$(1) below represents the mathematical expression used by Krejcie and Morgan, (1970) to compute for sample sizes.

(1) $\mathit{s}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}=\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}{X}^2\mathit{N}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\mathit{P}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\left(1\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}-\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\mathit{P}\right)\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}÷\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}{d}^2\left(\mathit{N}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}-\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}1\right)\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}+\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}{X}^2\mathit{P}\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\left(1\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}-\mathit{\hspace{0.17em}}\mathit{P}\right)$(1)

s = required sample size, X² = the table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the desired confidence level (3.841)

N = the population size, i.e. 2,660,000 in the case of Accra Metropolis.

p = the population proportion (assumed to be 0.5 since this would provide the maximum

Sample size)

d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (0.05)

A minimum of 385 sample size is required from the mathematical computation of Krejcie and Morgan, (1970). Hence a total of 400 manual questionnaires were administered with 382 fully completed representing 95.5% return rate. 274 online respondents participated yet 221 questionnaires were fully completed representing 80.6% return rate. A total of 603 sample size was used after a careful administration and completion of the survey.

Sampling technique

Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used for this study. A purposive sampling is one whose characteristics are specified for a reason related to the study, according to Andrade (2021). For example, because it’s possible that fluoxetine won’t function as well in younger patients as it will in adults, a study may be designed specifically to look at the antidepressant effects of the medication in these age groups. Comparably, our study specifically looks at the moral behaviour of PT users in returning misplaced objects discovered in PT systems. According to Andrade (2021), purposive sampling can still be used in addition to simple random sampling; however, even in this case, generalization to the population covered by the sample selection criteria is limited. This implies that findings made from PT users cannot be applied to people who do not use PT. Purposive sampling has the benefit of being able to handle populations of particular interest, homogenize the sample, or weed out participants who pose a serious risk of unfavourable outcomes (Andrade (2021). One drawback of using a purposive sample is that the more purposive the sample is, the more limited the external validity will be Andrade (2021).

Data source and questionnaire administration

Data used for the study was gathered solely using a simple revealed preference survey (RP) and was administered both in manual print and online using google form. The questionnaires were administered for a period of thirty-one (31) successive days from NaN Invalid Date NaN to NaN Invalid Date NaN. A google form link was generated and distributed to various WhatsApp platforms and the social media space. Likewise, the manual print questionnaires were administered randomly at transport terminals such as taxi ranks, uber drivers, paratransit and coaches’ stations. The demography of respondents was relevant considering how people differ in perceptions and priorities. The main sampling techniques employed were sampling, purposive and simple random sampling. The stratified sampling ensured that on religious stratification questionnaires issued separately to the different religious communities. This allowed for more light to be thrown on which group of respondents has a better chance of keeping or returning an item. Respondents outside Accra and foreigners who are less than three months in Accra are discouraged from taking part in the survey.

Questionnaire reliability and validation

At the initial stage of satisfying the validity of the questionnaire design, four professors and associate professors from two universities in Ghana i.e. Accra Technical University (ATU) and University of Ghana (UG) vetted the questionnaire content and provided feedbacks on enhancing the contents as part of the pilot survey. A second phase of the pilot survey was conducted using twenty (20) responses, and the result was run using the SPSS to standard test the internal consistency of the questionnaire using Cronbach’s Alpha (CA), and the test obtained 0.804 reliability for the ranking related questions.

Data collection and analysis strategies

To ensure a very successful collection of our data, the researchers were further supported by field data collectors for questionnaire administration at transport terminals, market centers and communities. The data collected from the field were prepared by checking and editing. Relevant information needed to answer the objectives were ascertain while irrelevant ones were discarded with the aid of MS excel sheet. All data obtained were coded and the final-coded data was imported into a Statistical Product for Service Solution (SPSS version-16) for analysis. Transport mode usage, most trip type made and forms of economic difficulties allowed for multiple answers. Hence cross tabulations with the aid of SPSS were performed to access the most preferred alternatives. The rating of various parameters as to why or not a respondent will return an item were analyzed using a manual assessment. The religious demography across Ghana indicates that the southern and middle-belt of the country with Accra inclusive are Christian-dominated, while Moslems are predominant in the Northern sector (GSS, 2021). This led to the higher participation of Christian affiliates than the other religious group as well as non-religious people and this influenced our dataset. We also encountered participation reluctancy since it has to do with immoral and criminality study. However, we sensitized the participants on the significance of the study and the need to participate. To avoid biasness in data collection we ensured that the data was collected objectively by training the volunteer data collectors with the necessary skills in data collection. Furthermore, the respondents were freely selected to partake in the study without any form of coercion.

Data presentation & results

To provide enough basis for discussing and appraising the public transport users’ intent to return or not to return a missing but found items, it is appropriate to understand the demographic composition of the sampled respondents. As illustrated in Table 1 below more male PT users participated in the survey than female with 52.74% to 47.26%, respectively. About 45.61% of the respondents were student while 3.15% represented participants who are unemployed. Youthful population of 15–25 years representing 45.44% is the highest participation in the survey. To further extend the youthful ages to 35 years, then a whopping 81.1% of youthful voice are represented in the statistical analysis below. With 70.32% of the respondents attaining tertiary level of education is an indication that a well informed and decisive individuals made claims and choice based on what they deemed to be just and right. 2.82% of participants have no education while 11.94% attained up to a basic level of education. Though respondents who failed to provide information their monthly income obtained 29.85% of the total respondents, it is forth-right to appreciate that persons who earn below GHȻ 500.00 composed the majority with 25.54%, while those who earned GHȻ 5000.00 or more constituted 1.99% of the sampled population.

Table 1. Demographic, travel behaiour and religious & economic parameters of respondents.

RELIGIOUS & ECONOMIC FACTORS	NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS		PERCENTAGE (%)
Age (15–25) years (26–35) years (36–45) years (46–55) years (> 56) years Gender Male Female	274 215 89 23 2 318 285		45.44 35.66 14.96 3.81 0.33 52.74 47.26
Employment Status Student Unemployed Employed (private or public worker) Self-employed (business or entrepreneur) Retired Personal Income per Month Below 500 ghc 501–1000 ghc 1001–3000 ghc 3001–5000 ghc Above 5000 ghc DO not want to answer	275 19 221 87 1 154 122 106 29 12 180		45.60 3.15 36.65 14.43 0.17 25.54 20.23 17.58 4.81 1.99 29.85
Marital Status Married Divorces Single (Not Married) Widower/widow Separated Level of Education No education Basic education SHS/vocational/technical education Tertiary education	131 13 455 1 3 17 72 90 424		21.72 2.16 75.46 0.17 0.50 2.82 11.94 14.93 70.32
TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR
Category Passenger Driver Driver’s mate Station master Regular usage of PT Very regular Regular Somewhat regular Not regular	505 67 23 8 291 200 91 21		83.75 11.11 3.81 1.33 48.26 33.17 15.09 3.48
PT usage per Week All days of the week Four to six days/week Two to three days/week Once/week Not at all Frequency of Lost Item Very often Often Not often Not all	224 141 151 66 21 23 24 281 275		37.15 23.38 25.04 10.95 3.48 3.81 3.98 46.60 45.61
Attentiveness when passenger alights very attentive little attentive not attentive	251 295 57		41.63 48.92 9.45
Religious affiliation (group) Christianity Islam African Traditional others Commitment to Doctrine Deeply committed Committed Somehow committed Not committed		515 76 5 7 236 304 56 8		85.41 12.60 0.83 1.16 39.14 50.41 9.29 1.16
Religious Teaching on Theft Very well Well Somewhat well Not well Economic issues influence decision Highly influence Influence Somewhat influence Not influence Return of Item Yes No		501 78 16 8 133 171 132 168 536 67		83.08 12.94 2.65 1.33 22.06 28.36 21.89 27.69 88.89 11.11

As indicated in Table 1, it is vital to appreciate the travel behaviour of respondents in relation to the transport mode usage and their respective frequencies. From the responses, 83.75% of respondents are passengers who are described as public transport-dependent individual. While 11.11% represent those persons who drive their own car, 1.33% of respondents are station masters who operates within the public transport space. This translates into why 60.53% of respondents will have no option than to use public transport four (4) or more times in a week. About 3.81% alluded to how often they usually leave behind their items in a public transport environment mean while 41.63% pay less attention to a fellow passenger alighting from the same public transport vehicle of environment.

From Table 1 below, Christians constituted 85.41% of respondents with African traditional religion as the least. This is almost in tandem with Sasu, (2022a) findings of almost 80% of Christians in Ghana with non and other religions being the least. 89.55% of respondents claim some amount of commitment they have with their religious faith (doctrines and dogmas). This expresses why 96.02% demonstrates how well their religious faith forbids any act of stealing or taking what does not belong to you without owner’s concern. 50.42% of PT users claimed that economic situation cannot influence their moral behaviour to return lost item while 11.11% indicated that their moral behaviour will be influenced in their return decision. Out of almost 99% of PT users who have one religious affiliation or the other, 11.11% is significant enough to be worried about the deteriorating situation of the Ghanaian moral virtues.

Table 2 presents statistics of various trip types of PT users in the Accra Metropolis. Out of the 603 PT users, a total of 1041 selected trips were made since some respondents have multiple uses. The most common trip made was commuting to work or school with 39.1% of the total number of trip types selected by the PT users. This implies that 407 of the 1041 trip types uses PT for commuting purposes. Also, 172.6% of the percent of cases represents the total number of trip types per the total number of PT users. The least trip type made with PT is religious trip with 14.8%. Again, Table 2 showed the PT mode preference used by PT users and the most used PT mode is paratransit with 41.3% while rickshaw (pragia) is the least at 2.3% preference. The total percent of cases for all mode preferences is 163.5%. Table 2 showed the various forms of the economic challenges PT users are facing as at the time of data collection. 45% of PT users showed that general hardship is most predominant while 3.1% are confronted with legal issues. Total percent cases for all the economic challenges identifies by the PT users is 149.4%. Respondents were asked to comment on why they will return or not return found item in a PT. Figures 4 and 5 below showed some commentary justifications for PT users’ decisions. Though empathy showed forth in the commentary of PT users, a significant majority of PT users demonstrated religious doctrines and practices has tremendous influence on why they need to return a found item in their commentary. Meanwhile, commentaries like ugly past experiences, inability to track owner, wrongful accusation, transport operators and station master keeping the item and some other reasons influenced PT users’ decision not to return item.

Figure 4. Some PT users’ commentaries on return of lost items.

Figure 5. Some PT users’ commentaries not to return lost items.

Table 2. Respondents most preferred trip types, transport mode and economic difficulties.

TRIP TYPE
		Responses
		N	Percent	Percent of Cases
TRIP TYPE	COMMUTING	407	39.1%	67.5%
	SHOPPING	198	19.0%	32.8%
	FAMILY & FRIENDS	154	14.8%	25.5%
	RELIGIOUS TRIPS	128	12.3%	21.2%
	BUSINESS TRIP	154	14.8%	25.5%
Total		1041	100.0%	172.6%
TRANSPORT MODE
		Responses
		N	Percent	Percent of Cases
TRANSPORT MODE	COACHES	124	12.6%	20.6%
	PARATRANSIT	407	41.3%	67.5%
	SHARED TAXI	183	18.6%	30.3%
	LONE PASSENGER	214	21.7%	35.5%
	RICKSHAW (PRAGIA)	23	2.3%	3.8%
	MOTORCYCLE (OKADA)	35	3.5%	5.8%
Total		986	100.0%	163.5%
ECONOMIC DIFFICULTIES
		Responses
		N	Percent	Percent of Cases
ECONOMIC DIFFICULTIES	GEN. HARDSHIP	405	45.0%	67.2%
	UNSETTLED BILLS	112	12.4%	18.6%
	DEBT	110	12.2%	18.2%
	BUSS CHALLENES	176	19.5%	29.2%
	LEGAL ISSUES	28	3.1%	4.6%
	NONE	70	7.8%	11.6%
Total		901	100.0%	149.4%

Discussion

PT users provided which public transport mode they use in making trips and what trip types they usually make. It was identified that paratransit is the most dominant in making intracity trips compared to shared taxi. While 41.3% make trips using paratransit, shared taxi and lone passenger modes are 18.6% and 21.7% of respondents, respectively. Aside the numerous influxes of emerging motorcycle (okada) and rickshaw (pragia) usage in the central business districts of the study area, 3.5% and 2.3% of respondents will use as transport mode, respectively. This is justified by Nutsugbodo et al. (2018) who claim motorcycles are the least patronized transport mode by tourist who visited Ghana. According to Nutsugbodo et al. (2018), taxis are most patronized transport modes for tourists while paratransit are the next patronize, and this is in contrast to our findings. This variation can be attributed to the convenience, safety and security tourist will prefer to enjoy since they are new to the Ghanaian transport system. Tourists who are not conversant with Ghana’s road transport connectivity will opt to use transport mode that are within their reach and control such as hired-taxi. According to Hotor (2016) findings, paratransit recorded higher preference compared to taxi probably due to cost since paratransit are less costly. The most common trip type was commuting, accounting for 39.1% of cases and our findings are consistent with the findings of previous studies, which have shown that commuting is the most common trip type (Hotor, 2016; Pew Research Center, 2022). Shopping was the second most common trip type, accounting for 19.0% of cases as shown in Table 2. Family and friends’ trips as well as business trips were both the third most common trip type, accounting for 14.8% each. Religious trips were the least common trip type, accounting for 12.3% of trips and this was confirmed by Hotor (2016) who recorded an averagely low religious trips made by respondents compared to shopping and commuting trips. This justifies why most Ghanaians make religious trips by walking. Although some group of Christian due to relocation make religious trip using motorized transport, a majority representation of religious trip makers are by foot. In the case of Islam worshippers, almost all trips to mosques for worship requires no motorized transport. The data also shows that shopping, family and friends’ trips, and religious trips are common trip types. Business trips are the least common trip type in the United States (Pew Research Center, 2022). According to Degenhard (2023), consumer spending in Ghana was all time low since 2018 with 47,047,900,000 dollars. We attributed this to the high inflation rate of 43.1% in July 2023 (Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 2023b) across Ghana as at when the data was collected. We do acknowledge that the prevailing economic recession at the time will inform participants make choices based on the prevalent situation but may not necessarily reflect an all-time case scenario. This possibly may contribute to some biasness in the data. As shown in Table 2 below, general hardship was most predominant among PT users accounting for 45.0%. This came as no surprise since there was a nation-wide rise in inflation in all products and services as well as general increase in utilities in the country. Unsettled bills and debts constituted 24.60% of respondents’ economic challenges, while 7.8% of respondents claim no economic challenges associated with them.

Cross tabulation analysis

According to Figure 6 and Table 3 below, respondents who are found of losing their items in a public transport all claim they will return item meanwhile participant who never lost an item with 10.54% indicating their intent not to return found items. Those who do not often lose their items represented by 14.69% of respondents are demonstrating unwillingness to return a found item. As depicted in Figure 7 and Table 3 below, African tradition and other religions recorded 60% and 57.14% respectively of respondents refusing to return lost item. Islam and Christianity respondents recorded 18.75% and 10.27% respectively for their unwillingness to return lost but found missing. This shows that Christians appear to be more inclined to returning items as in the study of (Oboh & Omolehinwa, 2021). However, at least each religion has some fraction of respondents who are not willing to return item when found in a public transport system. Economic situation can impact individual ethical behaviour and moral decadence in portraying what is just and forthright. 20.31% of respondents who are convinced that economic situation will highly influence them indicated that they will not return the item, while 2.97% of participants who think economic factors will not influence their decision are inclined to not returning the item as shown in Figure 8 and Table 3 below.

Figure 6. Graph of frequency of lost item against return of item.

Figure 7. Graph of religious affiliation against return of item.

Figure 8. Graph of economic influence against return of item.

Table 3. Lose of items, religious group and economic influence against return of item.

LOSEITEM * RETURN_ITEM
		RETURN_ITEM
		YES	NO	Total
LOSE ITEM	VERY OFTEN	23	0	23
	OFTEN	22	2	24
	NOT OFTEN	245	36	281
	NEVER	246	29	275
Total		536	67	603
REL_GROUP * RETURN_ITEM
		RETURN_ITEM
		YES	NO	Total
REL_GROUP	CHRISTIANITY	467	48	515
	ISLAM	64	12	76
	AFRICAN TRADITION	2	3	5
	OTHERS	3	4	7
Total		536	67	603
ECO_INFLUENCE * RETURN_ITEM
		RETURN_ITEM
		YES	NO	Total
ECO_ INFLUENCE	HIGLY INFLUENCE	106	27	133
	INFLUENCE	144	27	171
	SOMEWHAT INFLU	123	8	131
	NOT INFLUENCE	163	5	168
Total		536	536	603

Exploring predisposed factors for people who are likely to return lost but found items

Based on the previous outcome in Table 4 we explored the significant factors that are likely to foster a positive ethical attitude to return lost but found items using the mean and the standard deviation. The results show the mean, standard deviation and ranking of the most prevalent triggers of the respondents’ decision to return lost items found on public transport. The results reveal that religious values (Mean = 4.41 SD = 1.97) and empathy (Mean = 4.37, SD = 1.92) are the two most significant factors influencing respondents’ decisions to return lost items, with mean scores of 4.41 and 4.37, respectively. According to (Shariff, 2015; Durkheim, 1912/1995) found that religiosity predicts positive moral ethics on people hence religion increases moral behaviour. These high mean scores, coupled with relatively low standard deviations (1.97 for religious values and 1.92 for empathy), suggest that respondents generally agree on the importance of these moral and empathetic considerations. Conversely, the value of the lost item plays a less prominent role, as indicated by its lower mean score of 3.25 and a slightly higher standard deviation of 2.08. Contrarily, West (2003) found that lost cash had a higher return rate than lost items and attributed this to easier means of identification of owner since most cash lost are in wallets or purse. However, West (2003) indicated that an increase in returns of lost items can be attributed to an increase in value of portable objects such as electronics. Contrary to our results, (Eisenberg, 2000; Pokorny et al., 2017) found that there is a significant and a conceptual linked of empathy playing a crucial role in moral and prosocial behaviour, while (Decety & Cowell, 2014) also confirmed the importance of empathy one a well-functioning society. The higher standard deviation suggests that respondents’ have greater variability in their opinions regarding the importance of an item’s value. Additionally, the average mean score across all six factors is 3.94. This overall average suggests that, on average, respondents consider the factors as moderately important when making decisions about returning lost items.

Table 4. Factors that triggers decision to return or not return lost but found items by PT users.

Return Factors	Mean	Standard Deviation (SD)	Sig	Rank
Value of item	3.25	2.08	0.001	6
Empathy	4.37	1.92	0.001	2
Personal Values	4.22	1.97	0.001	3
Fear of perceived consequence	3.45	2.03	0.001	5
Religious Values	4.41	1.97	0.001	1
Mental discomfort (Conscience)	3.94	2.62	0.001	4
Not Return Factors	Mean	Standard Deviation (SD)	sig	Rank
Value of item	3.52	2.08	0.001	6
Economic Hardship	4.64	1.90	0.001	1
Time Pressure	4.63	1.67	0.001	2
Convenience	4.12	1.51	0.001	5
Misrepresent	4.17	2.07	0.001	4
Insufficient Appreciation	4.42	1.90	0.001	3

In summary, there is more emphasis on the strong influence of moral values and empathy in respondents’ decisions to return lost items on public transport, while the monetary value of the item is a comparatively less influential factor. Understanding these provides valuable insights into the ethical and empathetic considerations that drive individuals’ behaviour in such situations.

On the contrary, Table 4 again examines the factors that trigger public transport users’ decisions not to return lost but found items. Understanding these factors is also crucial for public transport authorities to enhance awareness campaigns and encourage ethical behaviour among passengers.

From the results, public transport users cited economic hardship (Mean = 4.64 SD = 1.90) as the most significant factor influencing their decision not to return lost items. This finding underscores the impact of financial constraints on individuals’ ethical choices. Similarly, time pressure (Mean = 4.63, SD = 1.67) also emerged as the second most influential factor. Indicating that users may choose not to return items due to time constraints, highlighting the balance between ethical behaviour and daily obligations. Furthermore, the PT users indicated that insufficient appreciation (Mean = 4.42, SD = 1.90), possibly in the form of gratitude or acknowledgment, affects their decision-making process. On the other hand, the finder’s law in Japan according to West (2003) gratifies finders hence finders are encouraged to return missing items. Feeling undervalued may deter individuals from engaging in ethical actions. The results also showed that convenience plays a role in PT users’ decisions (Mean = 4.12, SD = 1.15). If the process of returning a lost item is cumbersome, PT users may opt not to return it, prioritizing their own ease. The perceived value of the lost item (Mean = 3.52, SD = 2.08) was identified as the least influential factor. Although, it still matters, it holds less weight in comparison to other considerations

Conclusion

This study looked into PT users’ moral behaviour when it come to their decision to return a misplaced but found item to a public transport system. This was made necessary when we discovered that a society that claims to be morally and religiously sensitive was celebrating the actions of a taxi driver who had done the right thing. The degree to which respondents would or would not return a missing item in the city of Accra was determined by presenting them with a number of factors, including religious and empathetic considerations. In order to understand the reasons behind participants’ decisions to return or not return a missing item, the demographic characteristics of the respondents were contextualized from their feedback. The study used a quantitative approach to collect data, utilizing a structured questionnaire with closed-ended question formats to obscure the data collection tool. The researchers received additional assistance from field data collectors to administer questionnaires in communities, market centers, and transportation terminals. Our findings indicates that religious values and empathy were most considered reasons why PT users will return lost items. The study also found that convenience of returning an item was very critical since the system does not create enough trust for the rightful owners getting back their item. The findings also reveal that Christian PT users are more likely to return items than the other religion and PT users who never lost an item in a PT system are much willing to return lost items than PT users who once lost their items.

We recommend that state actors of public transport such as Ghana Road Transport Coordinating Council (GRTCC) and Ministry of Transport (MOT) should adopt and tailor the Japanese finder’s law to suit the Ghanaian context to beef up the confidence of item finders. Convenience of returning lost items requires that a pragmatic approach of easing down on how and where to return an item is required. Hence the Ghana Private Road and Transport Union (GPRTU) should institute lost items offices at bus terminals to enhance the convenience and swiftness of returning found items. Finally, religious leaders should endeavour amplifying the course of moral virtues since religious values played a pivotal role in decision to return lost items. Through sensitization and awareness creation, religious doctrines and dogmas will encourage more PT users to appreciate the need to return lost items in PT systems. A nation-wide campaign via media platforms will promote a good means of conscientization to PT users.

A binomial logistic regression model for future researches will provide sufficient details on which factors highly demonstrates significancy to influence PT users’ decision to return found items in PT systems. While (Penner et al., 1976; Stern & Farber, 1997) used a direct experiment of lost wallet in their research, we recommend future research should implore a quasi-experimental design to explore ‘religious values’ variable identified in this study as well as other variables of interest.

Limitations

Since the study aims to explore the impact of moral behaviour on PT users’ decision, it would have been more appropriate to sample people from non-religious background to ascertain the tur impact of the religious factor on their dependent variable. However, this was not made possible due to the difficulty in data collection. Another limitation of the study was the researchers

The sample size of the study was relatively small, which may limit the generalizability of the findings and this is attributed to funds restriction and participant unwillingness. We also found that the data collection methods adopted in the study may have itself introduced some biases or errors. We equally admit that the research work was under-financed since all research procedures were financed by the researchers. It limited our capacity to solicit for more participation since participants were reluctant to share information. We identified that respondents’ compliance to share information will increase if some incentives were made available for the participants. We recommend PT stakeholders engagement to scoop in more participation from policy-makers, driver unions and PT operators. Also, in order to increase a fair religious representation, we recommend that future research should consider stratified data collection by targeting other religions. We further recommend that state actors and transport stakeholders should establish keen interest in such related studies and ensure the implementations of the research findings.

Acknowledgments

We will like to express our profound appreciation to the teaching staff of Leaders Court School, Suncity -Tema West for actively participating in the field data collection. Our appreciation to the following professors at the Accra Technical University and the University of Ghana- Legon for taking time to review our questionnaire.

• Dr Mrs Gladys Setordze – University of Ghana (UG) Psychologist

• Dr.Frank Opuni - Accra Technical University (ATU) Marketing Department

• Engr. Dr. Mrs. Funny Sarah Hackman Duncan - Accra Technical University (ATU)

• Dr. Addae – Accra Technical University (ATU) Finance Department

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).