A pathway to engagement: the mediating role of self-efficacy between interpersonal relationships and academic engagement

Abstract

There is a growing need to understand the role of social and personal factors in relation students’ academic engagement. This study aimed to examine the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationships between interpersonal relationships (parents, peers, and teachers) and learning engagement (cognitive, behavioural, agentic, and emotional) among 477 high school students from Malaysia. The research applied a cross-sectional approach and data was obtained via survey questionnaires. Descriptive statistics were computed, and a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach with AMOS software was utilized for data analysis regarding measurement model and hypotheses testing. The structural model revealed that self-efficacy fully mediated the relationships between interpersonal relationships and the four dimensions of student engagement. The study highlights the importance of positive interpersonal relationships with parents, peers, and teachers in fostering students’ self-efficacy and subsequently enhancing their engagement in various aspects of their academic life. These results have implications for educators and psychological practitioners in promoting supportive environments that foster self-efficacy and engagement among high school students.

Keywords:

• Interpersonal relationships
• self-efficacy
• student engagement
• high school
• Malaysia

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Victoria Simms, University of Ulster: Ulster University, United Kingdom

SUBJECTS:

• Classroom Practice
• Educational Psychology
• School Psychology

1. Introduction

The importance of student engagement in addressing low academic achievement and motivation has been recognized by researchers and educators (Fredricks et al., 2004). It was defined as ‘student’s active participation in academic and co-curricular or school-related activities, and commitment to educational goals and learning’ (Christenson et al., 2012, p. 816). It consists of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive elements. Participation, effort, on-task concentration, and resilience are all aspects of behavioural engagement. The emotional engagement incorporates a sense of enthusiasm, interest, curiosity, and satisfaction. Cognitive engagement is the use of deep learning and competencies in self-regulation (Martin et al., 2014; Reeve et al., 2019). Reeve and Tseng (2011) introduced a novel type of engagement named agentic engagement, which entails students getting involved in the process of classroom instruction by expressing their opinions and contributing ideas to classroom activities. It is important to note that all aspects of engagement are inextricably interconnected, as emphasized by Reeve (2012). However, further investigations are imperative on the many facets of engagement, most particularly on the aspect of agentic engagement (as cited by Sinatra et al., 2015).

In addition, school disengagement seems to be a global issue. This is followed by low academic performance that may be due to students’ lack of engagement. This is certainly the case with regard to Malaysia where, given that the disengagement of students in high schools is increasingly a public concern (Awang-Hashim et al., 2015). Given the current challenges and needs, it has become increasingly important to study engagement in the Malaysian high school context. Accordingly, the primary objective of this research is to present empirical results on engagement elements and their associations with self-efficacy and interpersonal relationships among high school students in Malaysia.

The significance of various types of interpersonal relationships in relation to self-efficacy and academic engagement within the same model is not yet fully comprehended. This research is of great significance as it seeks to cover multiple empirical gaps in the existing studies. Specifically, we aim to provide insights into how interpersonal relationship factors relate to self-efficacy and the four dimensions of student engagement. Furthermore, there is a robust theoretical underpinning for undertaking this study alongside the above-mentioned empirical rationale. This research places considerable emphasis on social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) as it provides a solid framework for understanding the potential associations between interpersonal relationships, self-efficacy, and learning engagement aspects.

The social cognitive theory postulates that environments play a significant role in shaping individuals’ behaviours, and that social contexts serve as the settings where learning and behaviour occur (Bandura, 1986; Christenson et al., 2012). Two types of potential facilitators are distinguished in relation to engagement: personal and social. Personal facilitators encompass students’ self-perceptions and processes within their self-system, such as self-efficacy and their sense of belongingness within the school environment. On the other hand, social facilitators pertain to social contexts and involve interpersonal interactions with significant others, such as teachers, peers, and parents, and these social facilitators encompass the quality and characteristics of the relationships established with these individuals (Christenson et al., 2012). An important internal component that has a substantial influence on students’ tasks engagement is self-efficacy. Students’ motivation, cognitive processes, the planning of learning processes, and the development of their skills are all significantly shaped by their efficacy beliefs (Schunk, 1985). Academic self-efficacy refers to beliefs about one’s abilities to accomplish tasks, plays a significant role in student engagement (Bandura et al., 1999). Self-efficacy serves as a critical indicator of behavioural patterns among students, as emphasized by Pintrich and Schunk (2002) and Sökmen (2021). Nonetheless, further investigations to comprehensively understand the impact of interpersonal relationships and the learning environment on all aspects of engagement are imperative (Collie et al., 2016; Wang & Eccles, 2013). Our goal in the current study is to examine how students’ responsive interpersonal relationships with their parents, peers, and teachers are correlated to their self-efficacy beliefs and the four facets of engagement (e.g. behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic).

2. Self-efficacy beliefs and student engagement

Self-efficacy is considered a crucial factor that enhances both motivation and engagement (Bandura, 1986). For example, it was found that students possess high self-efficacy levels are more likely to be behaviourally, motivationally, and cognitively engaged compared to those with lower levels of self-efficacy (Bassi et al., 2007; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003). Furthermore, learners who possess high levels of self-efficacy are characterized as individuals who actively enhance their skills and demonstrate strong motivation to participate in the learning process. Conversely, learners with low levels of self-efficacy exhibit diminished engagement and motivation, as self-efficacy plays a crucial role in influencing their involvement in various aspects of learning (Christenson et al., 2012). When students have the belief in their ability to perform the necessary activities for achieving success, they experience enhanced behavioural and cognitive engagement in school, leading to greater effectiveness in their learning process (Lam et al., 2012).

In a review by Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2003), they stated that high self-efficacy leads to greater use of deeper processing strategies, increased effort, and better problem understanding. Positive relationships have been found between self-efficacy and behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic engagement (Uçar & Sungur, 2017; Zhen et al., 2017). According to Christenson et al. (2012), agentic engagement encompasses the adaptability and competencies of students when confronted with novel and complex tasks. In the same vein, Reeve and Tseng (2011) proposed that certain motivational factors related to agency, such as self-efficacy and interests, could play a role in fostering students’ agentic engagement. In addition, numerous empirical studies have consistently demonstrated that self-efficacy is positively correlated with the higher use of cognitive and self-regulatory strategies, as well as high quality of interest in academic tasks among students (Bong et al., 2012; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Sungur & Kahraman, 2011). In a research by Sökmen (2021) among middle school students, it was shown that self-efficacy perceptions strongly influenced their engagement in terms of behavioural, emotional, cognitive and agentic aspects. Students who possess a robust academic self-efficacy, are more inclined to be motivated to utilize effective learning strategies, improve their cognitive abilities, and demonstrate persistence when confronted with challenges in their learning process (Pajares, 1996; Christenson et al., 2012). Consequently, they demonstrate active engagement behaviours that are crucial for achieving their academic objectives. As a result, we expect a positive correlation between students’ self-efficacy and their levels of engagement.

3. Students’ interpersonal relationships, self-efficacy, and student engagement

Previous studies have shown that students’ perceptions of their social environments are linked to their academic outcomes (Collie et al., 2016; Fan & Williams, 2010; Sökmen, 2021). This study focuses on the social environment which operationalized as high-quality interpersonal relationships with teachers, parents, and peers. These relationships have been asserted to be a crucial factor in enhancing overall positive outcomes, well-being, and growth (Martin, 2014; Martin & Dowson, 2009). Significant others’ problem-solving modeling and positive interactions can help students foster a feeling of self-efficacy (Bandura et al., 1999). Furthermore, individuals to whom students closely identify and with whom they have strong connections serve as powerful channels for modeling and positive communication (Bandura et al., 1999; Meece, 1997; Schunk & Miller, 2002).

Positive interpersonal relationships imply that students receive caring and supportive assistance when facing challenges, which can boost their problem-solving confidence and enhance their self-efficacy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Self-efficacy, in turn, can positively impact students’ functioning by increasing their effort, persistence, and ability to handle problematic situations, influencing their cognitive and emotional processes (Bandura, 1986; Martin & Dowson, 2009). Previous studies have shown a positive correlation between positive parent-child relationships and desirable student outcomes, including increased self-efficacy, active engagement in learning (Fan & Williams, 2010). Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that positive perceptions of peer relationships lead to higher levels of self-confidence in subsequent years (Hughes & Chen, 2011), high-quality of engagement (Wang & Eccles, 2013) and a sense of competence in academic activities (Guay et al., 1999). Additionally, teacher-student relationships account for a significant portion of the variance in motivation and engagement, surpassing the effects of parent-child and peer relationship (Zandvliet et al., 2014). In other words, positive teacher-student interactions are associated with students’ desired behaviours such as confidence in oneself, learning goal orientation, tasks value, strategic planning, challenge difficulties, dedication in tasks, and resilience. When students’ academic self-efficacy is stimulated, it primes the use of strategies, learning efforts, and persistence, ultimately benefiting learning engagement (Christenson et al., 2012; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Sökmen, 2021). Hence, it is plausible that the positive interpersonal relationships with parents, teachers, and peers can serve as predictors of learning engagement through academic self-efficacy.

4. The current study

Over the last 20 years, there has been a significant growth in studies on academic engagement, indicating a growing interest and need in this field of research (Fredricks et al., 2016). As a result, it could be stated that there is considerable interest and necessity in this area of research. Given that students’ self-efficacy is influenced by interactions with parents, peers, and teachers, and also affects their engagement, this study is significant in addressing this vital issue, particularly in the context of developing twenty-first-century skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, communication, collaboration, creativity, and innovation in the educational contexts (Niemi & Multisilta, 2016). In other words, the main objective of this study was to offer empirical evidence regarding different aspects of engagement, particularly agentic engagement, and examine how these dimensions are uniquely linked to interpersonal relationships (parents, peers, and teachers) and self-efficacy. Furthermore, the study examines whether students’ self-efficacy mediates the relationships between interpersonal relationships and student engagement. Based on the discussed theoretical and empirical literature, we hypothesised that self-efficacy will mediate the relationships between the three aspects of interpersonal relationships (parents, peers, and teachers) and the and all the features of learning engagement which include behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic aspect.

5. Methods

In the current research we utilized a cross-sectional research approach and survey questionnaires to gather the data.

5.1. Respondents and procedure

Using sample random sampling technique proceeding with cluster sampling, the study consisted of 477 high school students from the northern of Malaysia, with 339 (71.1%) females and 138 (28.9%) males. The average age of the participants was 15.60 years (SD = 1.58). Official approval was offered from the research ethics board prior to data collection. The data were collected during a regular school lesson by the class teacher, ensuring the confidentiality of the students. Participants were granted complete freedom to withdraw from the survey at any given moment. The overall objectives of the research topic were clearly stated to the respondents, emphasizing that their participation was entirely voluntary and would have no impact on their grades.

5.2. Measures

The original English instruments were translated into Bahasa Malaysia, the country’s native language, employing the back-translation method through decentering proposed by Brislin (1986) where content is translated then translated back to its original language and then compared to the source text. A proficient translator translated the instruments, then a second researcher who was proficient in both languages performed the back-translation. Experts in the field were consulted to rectify any differences that might exist among the translated versions. Each item in the survey was assessed using a 6-point Likert scale, ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree).

5.2.1. Interpersonal relationships

Three essential aspects were used to measure interpersonal relationships: relationships with teachers, parents, and peers. The quality of relationships with teachers was evaluated based on four items (e.g. ‘In general, my teachers really listen to what I have to say’) established by Martin and Marsh (2008). In terms of assessing students’ perceptions on parent relationships (e.g. ‘My parents understand me’) as well as peer relationships (‘Overall, I get along well with other students at this school’), we used four items for each subscale adapted from the Self-Description Questionnaire II (see Marsh, 1992). Previous research has provided evidence of the robust psychometric properties of these three scales (e.g. Collie et al., 2016; Marsh, 1992; Martin & Marsh, 2008).

5.2.2. Self-efficacy

Academic efficacy subscale (e.g. ‘I can do even the hardest work in this class if I try’; 4 items) was measured by items adapted from the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS; Midgley et al., 2000). The academic efficacy component reflects students’ perceptions of their abilities to successfully carry out academic tasks. Previous research (Midgley et al., 2000; Sökmen, 2021) has provided evidence of the scale’s strong psychometric properties.

5.2.3. Student engagement

Student engagement has been evaluated as a multidimensional construct which includes behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic dimensions. Adopted items from The Engagement Versus Disaffection with Learning Measurement Scale developed by Skinner et al. (2009) were used to assess both behavioural and emotional aspects of students’ engagement with five items for each. Four items from the Metacognitive Strategies Questionnaire (Wolters, 2004) focused on elaboration-based learning techniques were adopted to assess cognitive engagement. Agentic engagement was assessed using five items from the the Agentic Engagement Scale (Reeve, 2013). A total of nineteen items, preceded by the stem ‘In this class…’, were employed to measure engagement. Examples of these items include ‘I try hard to do well’, ‘I enjoy learning new things’, ‘I try to connect what I am learning with my own experiences’, and ‘I ask questions to help me learn’, for behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic elements, respectively. Prior research, such as Reeve (2013), has reported excellent psychometric properties for the student engagement scales.

5.3. Statistical analysis

The descriptive statistics were calculated utilizing SPSS 25. Subsequently, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was addressed via the structural equation modeling (SEM) approach with latent variables. The purpose of the CFA was to evaluate the full measurement model, which included interpersonal relationships (teachers, parents, and peers), self-efficacy, and the four aspects of academic engagement (cognitive, agentic, behavioural, and emotional) as latent related variables. Furthermore, all variables’ Average Variance Extracted (AVE), composite reliability (ρ), and discriminant validity were computed. When the association coefficients between the latent constructs are less than 0.90, discriminant validity is considered achieved (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Moreover, Acceptable values for composite reliability (ρ) and AVE, according to Bagozzi and Yi (1988) and Hair et al. (2010), are 0.60 and 0.50, respectively. When these norms are satisfied, it indicates that the measure has adequate internal consistency and convergent validity.

The proposed model, which included self-efficacy as a mediating variable in the associations between interpersonal relationships and students’ engagement aspects, was analyzed through the AMOS 23, by using the maximum likelihood approach as well as a covariance matrix. Model fit indices were assessed using several thresholds, including the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) with a 90% confidence interval (CI), and the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The recommended thresholds for acceptable model fit were defined as SRMR values lower than 0.08, RMSEA values equal to or lower than 0.06, and CFI and TLI values equal to or above 0.90 (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2011).

6. Results

6.1. Descriptive statistics

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for all measures. The internal consistency of the measures was found to be high, ranging from 0.81 to 0.91. Additionally, the skewness values (ranging from -0.23 to 0.22) and kurtosis values (ranging from -0.75 to -0.44) were within the acceptable range of −1.00 to +1.00 (Leech et al., 2005), indicating a normal distribution of the variables.

Table 1. Results of descriptive statistics, reliability, and normality.

	Items number	α	Mean	SD	Skewness	Kurtosis
1. Parents	4	0.91	4.51	0.79	−0.11	−0.62
2. Peers	4	0.90	4.61	0.81	−0.23	−0.64
3. Teachers	4	0.81	4.82	0.57	0.23	−0.66
4. Self-Efficacy	4	0.90	4.95	0.62	0.09	−0.75
5. Behavioural	5	0.88	4.79	0.64	0.15	−0.68
6. Emotional	5	0.86	4.77	0.60	0.14	−0.48
7. Cognitive	4	0.84	4.79	0.65	−0.13	−0.53
8. Agentic	5	0.83	4.75	0.61	0.22	−0.44

N = 477.

6.2. Confirmatory factor analysis

To assess the overall measurement model, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was evaluated as described in the statistical analysis part. The model was identified as eight related latent variables (parents, peers, teachers, self-efficacy, behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic) with 35 items were specified as indicators. The results indicated that the model fit the data excellently, with a χ²/df ratio of 2.06 (χ² = 1084.71, df = 525), TLI = 0.94, CFI = 0.94, SRMR = 0.02, and RMSEA = 0.04 with a 90% confidence interval [0.043 - 0.051]. Composite reliability (ρ) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values, respectively, surpassed the established cutoff standards of 0.60 and 0.50 (see Bagozzi & Yi, 1988; Hair et al., 2010). The loadings of items on their respective variables ranged from 0.56 to 0.91, and they were all highly significant statistically. Moreover, no correlation coefficient between the latent variables surpassed the threshold score of 0.90 as stated by Tabachnick and Fidell (2013), indicating well-established discriminant validity (Table 2). These findings provide support for the robustness and validity of the measurement model.

Table 2. Results of the measurement model.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	ρ	AVE	loadings range
1. Parents	─								0.91	0.72	0.79-0.91
2. Peers	0.54***	─							0.89	0.68	0.78-0.85
3. Teachers	0.50***	0.53***	─						0.81	0.54	0.56-0.80
4. Self-Efficacy	0.58***	0.60***	0.63***	─					0.86	0.62	0.75-0.82
5. Behavioural	0.60***	0.62***	0.53***	0.65***	─				0.88	0.61	0.74-0.82
6. Emotional	0.38***	0.44***	0.36***	0.43***	0.53***	─			0.86	0.55	0.67-0.81
7. Cognitive	0.53***	0.59***	0.54***	0.58***	0.61***	0.45***	─		0.84	0.58	0.72-0.81
8. Agentic	0.30***	0.31***	0.39***	0.34***	0.47***	0.25***	0.33***	─	0.82	0.50	0.64-0.80

N = 744***p < 0.001.

6.3. Structural equation modeling

As shown in Figure 1, utilizing the SEM approach, we investigated a full mediation model (by excluding direct paths from the exogenous constructs to the endogenous constructs) where self-efficacy fully mediated the effects of parent relationships, peer relationships, and teacher relationships on each of the four dimensions of students’ engagement (behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic). The model exhibited an excellent fit index, with χ²/df = 1.57 (χ² = 844.59, df = 537), CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.03 (0.030 - 0.039), and SRMR = 0.02. Subsequently, a partial mediation model was also examined by including direct paths from the exogenous constructs (parent relationships, peer relationships, and teacher relationships) to the endogenous constructs (behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic engagement). However, along with weaker coefficients of direct and indirect relationships, the partial mediation model showed a decline in explained variances and has significant differences (Δχ² (12) = 40.43, p < 0.05) compared to the full model. Therefore, for the sake of parsimony, the full mediation model was deemed appropriate.

Figure 1. Results of the structural model. For clarity purposes, we excluded the indicators. ***p < 0.001.

The results of the structural equation modeling where self-efficacy fully mediated the effects of parent relationships, peer relationships, and teacher relationships on each of the four dimensions of students’ engagement (behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic). All relationships were significant.

To assess the significance of indirect effects, the bootstrap approach was employed using 2000 bootstrap bias-corrected samples and a confidence interval (CI) level of 0.95. The coefficients of the relationships in the full mediation model are displayed in Table 3. The weight coefficients presented in Table 3 indicate that self-efficacy fully mediated the indirect relationships between parent relationships, peer relationships, and teacher relationships, and the endogenous constructs of behavioural, agentic, cognitive, and emotional engagement. All of indirect correlations were found to be statistically significant and positive. The results revealed 76% of the explained variance in self-efficacy, 66% in behavioural engagement, 32% in emotional engagement, 55% in cognitive engagement, and 20% in agentic engagement (Figure 1).

Table 3. Bias-corrected bootstrap results of indirect relationships.

	Behavioural engagement	Emotional engagement	Cognitive engagement	Agentic engagement
Parent relationships	0.27***	0.18***	0.24***	0.15***
Peer relationships	0.32***	0.22***	0.29***	0.18***
Teacher relationships	0.27***	0.19***	0.25***	0.15***
Explained variance	66%	32%	55%	20%

***p < 0.001.

7. Discussion

The current research was mainly on examining the relationships among students’ perceptions of interpersonal relationships (parents, peers, and teachers), self-efficacy, and the four dimensions of academic engagement in a group of Malaysian high school students. The findings align with previous studies that emphasize the significance of interpersonal relationships in improving students’ positive outcomes such as academic engagement (Collie et al., 2016; Fan & Williams, 2010; Sökmen, 2021). The results indicate strong support for the study’s main hypothesis, revealing a significant and robust relationships between interpersonal relationships and each of the four domains of students’ engagement (behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic) with highest explained variance in behavioural following by cognitive, emotional, and agentic engagement, respectively. The results highlighted the crucial role of students’ perceptions of their interpersonal relationships with parents, peers, and teachers in their academic engagement (Martin, 2014; Martin & Dowson, 2009). Satisfaction in interpersonal relationships and a sense of belonging imply that students feel cared for and supported, which in turn boosts their problem-solving confidence and self-efficacy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Consequently, students will exhibit more intentions to involve themselves in the learning process by demonstrating considerable efforts and resilience (behavioural engagement), possess optimistic attitudes while engaging in academic tasks (emotional engagement), employ deep learning strategies and self-regulation techniques (cognitive engagement), and interact constructively to the learning process through offering suggestions, voicing interests, and seeking for problem-solving approaches (agentic engagement).

It is worth noting that this study differs from previous ones by focusing on the role of self-efficacy in the relationship between interpersonal relationships and student engagement. Additionally, the investigation adopts Reeve’s (2013) academic engagement model, which suggests that academic engagement encompasses behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic. The findings of the current study suggest that students who have positive interpersonal relationships are more likely to develop and utilize self-efficacy to surpass their previous academic engagement. Consequently, they exhibit higher levels of attentiveness and effort in completing academic activities, experience positive emotions during these tasks, and devote greater cognitive effort to attain the necessary skills. The current findings align with previous research emphasizing the beneficial role of interpersonal relationships in enhancing students’ self-efficacy. However, this study stands out as one of its kind in exploring the relationship between interpersonal relationships and various dimensions of students’ engagement such as behavioural, emotional, cognitive, and agentic engagement, while considering the mediating role of self-efficacy.

The findings of the study are consistent with the social cognitive theory proposed by Bandura (1986) and supported by Christenson et al. (2012). According to this theory, the social environment, such as interpersonal relationships with parents, peers, and teachers, serves as a precursor to personal resources that encompass physical, mental, social, and psychological resources, facilitating the ongoing development of skills and capacities. Self-efficacy is about belief in one’s capacity and agency and this perceived capacity and agency can be instilled in the student through influences and modeling from and by others, including the teacher, peers, and parents. In other words, academic self-efficacy inspired by affective quality of relationships that enhance the feeling of relatedness which makes students feel capable and confident to handle learning demands (Christenson et al., 2012). Accordingly, students own a better sense of control over learning activities, as well as engagement. Students with positive relationships with others are more willing to have confidence in their abilities to accomplish certain academic tasks, and it can be considered as a motivational force to invest more efforts into learning, and to have higher level of learning engagement (Bandura et al., 1999). In the same vein, our study reveals that students who have the sense of responsive and constructive interpersonal relationships with their parents, peers, and teachers are more prone to achieve valuable educational outcomes, including the development of self-efficacy and the four aspects of academic engagement. Accordingly, positive interpersonal relationships can be seen as an influential pathway that fosters adaptive behaviours and motivation in students.

7.1. Theoretical implications

This study confirms the special connection that exists between interpersonal relationships and all aspects of students’ engagement, as well as how self-efficacy mediates the relationship. It contributes to the existing literature on interpersonal relationships, highlighting the strong connection between environmental factors, self-efficacy, and student engagement. Specifically, the study supports previous research on interpersonal relationships and self-efficacy within the educational context by examining their association with the four features of learning engagement. The present research has made more understanding to the study of social cognition theory and interpersonal relationships in terms of their relevance in non-western contexts such as the Malaysian educational contexts. Yet, further empirical investigations are needed to examine the relationship that exists between interpersonal relationships and various other important factors related to educational success.

7.2. Practical implications

The study’s findings emphasize the vital role of promoting interpersonal relationships and self-efficacy among high school students. To achieve this, it is crucial to create a favorable emotional environment by fostering strong connections between parents, teachers, and peers. This entails parents and teachers being attuned to students’ needs, establishing warm and caring interactions, actively listening to students’ perspectives, and avoiding the use of sarcasm or overly harsh disciplinary measures. A feeling of community and supportive interactions between instructors and students may be developed at the high schools by establishing psycho-educational activities that concentrate on a students’ emotional and social growth. Additionally, when parents actively participate in school-related activities, they strengthen the bond between home and school and demonstrate their support for their children’s education. Educators, parents, counselors, and mental health practitioners can effectively contribute to students’ academic outcomes by taking into account psychoeducational initiatives and intervention activities that nurture students’ interpersonal relationships, thereby facilitating positive academic outcomes.

7.3. Limitations and future perspectives

There are several limitations that should be acknowledged in this study. First, the use of a cross-sectional design prevents us from making causal claims between the constructs. It would be valuable for future research to employ experimental and longitudinal studies that can investigate the causal relationships more effectively as well as the role of time. Second, this study focused solely self-report surveys, which may introduce bias in the responses. To mitigate this, future studies would utilize other research methods, such as observations or interviews. Third, it is important to note that this study consisted exclusively of Malaysian high school students and females were dominant, which makes the generalization of the findings somewhat diminished. Future studies could include participants from other educational stages and consider diverse cultural backgrounds. Fourth, this study did not test the possibility of rival or alternative models. Thus, future studies can consider rival models where the reversed relationships between variables are possible. Lastly, the analysis of the hypothesized model did not consider the potential covariates such as gender, race, and age. Hence, future studies can provide more information by including the covariates (demographic variables).

8. Conclusion

The present study has made significant contributions to our understanding of self-efficacy, interpersonal relationships, and student engagement by examining their connections. By exploring these constructs simultaneously, the study provides insight into the significance of self-efficacy as a potential mechanism linking interpersonal relationships to student engagement. Overall, these findings expand our knowledge and provide valuable insights for researchers and educators seeking to enhance their understanding of students’ academic engagement experiences in the school setting.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Abderrahim Benlahcene

Dr Abderrahim Benlahcene is an assistant professor at Ajman University, UAE. His research interests focused on educational psychology, especially motivation and engagement for learning in all levels.

Rasha Mohamed Abdelrahman

Dr. Rasha is an assistant professor of educational psychology. Head of psychology dep, College of Humanities and sciences, Ajman University, UAE. Here researches’ interest includes education, educational and cognitive psychology, general psychology and counselling and mental health.

Marei Ahmed

Marei Ahmed is a professor in Ajman University, UAE. His researches’ interest includes positive psychology, psychometric, exercise and sport psychology, and Health psychology.

Shorouk Mohamed Farag Mohamed Aboudahr

Dr. Shoruok is a lecturer at the Faculty of Education and Humanities, Unitar International University, Malaysia. Her research interests include educational management, quality management, blended learning, and curriculum and instruction.