Decoding the complexity of sustainable rice farming: a systematic review of critical determining factor of farmers’ sustainable practices adoption

Abstract

The growing global concern about food security will be exacerbated by a projected population increase of nearly 10 billion by the year 2050. Rice cultivation is central to this discussion, as it feeds more than half of the world’s population. This systematic review addresses the urgent issue of global food security with an emphasis on sustainable rice farming. Traditional rice cultivation methods pose significant environmental challenges, such as methane emissions and high carbon footprints. Despite the increasing body of work on sustainable rice farming techniques, a gap exists from the absence of consolidated reviews. This study synthesised existing literature from SCOPUS and Web of Science databases according to PRISMA guidelines. Under strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, 49 of the initial 3259 studies identified were analysed. This present study established three pivotal factors influencing the adoption of sustainable practices among rice farmers: individual characteristics, community and social variables, and institutional frameworks. These elements hold crucial implications for policy formulation and provide a foundation for multidisciplinary collaboration to foster sustainable rice farming. This study fills a critical research void by delineating the key parameters that guide the adoption of sustainable practices within the rice farming community.

KEYWORD:

• Sustainable
• rice
• farmers
• adoption
• communication
• PRISMA
• review

Reviewing Editor:

• Manuel Tejada, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain

Subject:

• Agricultural Development
• Development Communication
• Environmental Communication
• Sustainable Development
• Sustainability

Introduction

The issue of food security continues to be a significant global problem, particularly in light of the projected population growth of nearly 10 billion by the year 2050 (United Nations, 2022). Adopting a comprehensive strategy to address the increasing need for nourishment is imperative, with rice playing a pivotal role within this intricate framework. Rice, consumed by over half the world’s population, equates to over 3.5 billion individuals worldwide and constitutes approximately 19% of the global dietary energy supply (Bin Rahman & Zhang, 2023). Furthermore, there has been a notable increase in the per capita consumption of rice, especially in developing nations, with the quantity consumed per year in some regions growing from 17.5 kg to 48 kg within two decades (Bin Rahman & Zhang, 2023). As mentioned earlier, the pattern highlights the significant importance of rice in the context of global food security, both presently and in the foreseeable future.

However, significant environmental trade-offs accompany the fundamental aspect of ensuring food security. Research findings indicate that the total volume of methane emissions from traditional rice cultivation methods varies significantly, with estimates ranging from 18.3 to 100 million metric tons per year (Nikolaisen et al., 2023). Furthermore, conventional paddy agriculture is frequently characterised by significant energy inputs, encompassing the utilisation of fossil fuels for machinery and synthetic fertilisers, thus resulting in a considerable carbon footprint (Cheng et al., 2023; Nordin et al., 2022; Pagani et al., 2017). The ecological impact of rice cultivation is more than just a matter of interest for ecologists. Instead, it presents a concrete risk to the sustainability of food supply in the long run.

In light of the aforementioned unsustainable practices, it is imperative to transition towards rice production methods that are more environmentally conscious. Initiatives such as the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) have emerged as leading contenders in the ongoing transition towards sustainability. These technologies improve crop production and effectively reduce water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, exemplifying the harmonious integration of productivity and sustainability (Ishfaq et al., 2020).

A rising number of research works focus on how farmers adopt sustainable rice production techniques. However, there needs to be more systematic reviews that aggregate the findings from these studies. Previous studies yielded significant results pertaining to multiple dimensions, including technological advancements, societal influences and economic considerations in the shift towards sustainable practices within rice cultivation. However, it is challenging to formulate comprehensive findings or practical suggestions based on the fragmented methodology employed through this approach (Ali et al., 2022; Connor et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2022; Nodin et al., 2023).

Henceforth, there is a clear imperative to conduct a systematic review in this domain. A comprehensive review would collate and assess extant scholarly literature, discern patterns of agreement or disagreement among study findings, and provide direction for subsequent research endeavours and policy formulation. In sustainable rice production, conducting a systematic review transcends beyond academic pursuit, as it is an indispensable instrument for making well-informed decisions and formulating effective plans.

The primary aim of this review was to analyse the various elements that impact the global adoption of sustainable rice production among rice farmers. The study primarily emphasises multiple components affecting farmers’ decision-making processes in adopting specific practices or technology related to sustainable rice production. This section will comprehensively describe the methodology utilised in the current study, including adopting the PRISMA Statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) approach outlined by Liberati et al. (2009). The following section delves into the process of reviewing. Subsequently, a comprehensive review of academic articles and papers was undertaken to identify, choose, and assess research works concerning implementing sustainable practices among rice farmers. The forthcoming section will provide an analysis and a concluding summary that will indicate the direction of future research.

Methodology

The methodology employed in this study is PRISMA, as described by Liberati et al. (Liberati et al., 2009). The analysis was performed on scholarly publications from two prominent academic databases, SCOPUS and Web of Science (WOS), which employ a rigorous peer-review process. The systematic review method encompassed several key components, including establishing specific criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of relevant studies and a series of procedures to be followed during the review process, such as identification, screening, and determination of eligibility. Additionally, data analysis through abstraction is integral to conducting a systematic review.

PRISMA

PRISMA’s selection as the study’s structure was motivated by its three distinct advantages. Firstly, it facilitates the examination of well-defined research inquiries that enable methodical investigation. Furthermore, the rules encourage the identification of criteria for inclusion and exclusion. Ultimately, this tool facilitates the exploration of an extensive repository of scholarly articles during a specified timeframe. The PRISMA statement encourages a comprehensive and systematic investigation of farmers’ decision-making to implement sustainable rice production.

Resources

The systematic review utilised two primary academic databases, namely SCOPUS and Web of Science (WOS). Both databases comprise over 33,000 journals across 256 areas, encompassing agronomy, multi-disciplinary agriculture, interdisciplinary social sciences, food technology, social issues, development, and planning. The dataset provided by Clarivate Analytics encompasses extensive research information and proper citation practices. The rankings are determined based on three criteria: the number of citations received, the quantity of papers published, and the average number of citations per publication. The subsequent database under consideration is SCOPUS, an Elsevier-owned proprietary database. The database has a comprehensive collection of over 22,800 scholarly journals from about 5000 publishers across the globe. Like the Web of Science (WOS), the SCOPUS index encompasses many subject areas, making it well-suited for this systematic review.

Search protocol – eligibility and exclusion criteria

The primary dataset was constructed after establishing a protocol to record the procedure used for data processing. Various inclusion and exclusion criteria were derived. The initial criterion pertains to the literature category, explicitly focusing on including journal articles that present primary data. Excluded from consideration are review articles, panel series data, book series, individual books, and conference proceedings. Furthermore, the regulations specifically exclude publications not in English to mitigate ambiguity and the risk of semantic loss throughout the translation process. The following criteria for the search protocol were rice farmers. The other types of food crop farmers were included in the study. Lastly, the final criterion was sustainable production. This comprised all sustainable rice production systems, including management, breed, input, and production systems. Table 1 summarises the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Table 1. Protocol inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Criterion	Eligibility	Exclusion
Literature type	Journal/Book Chapter	Book Series, Books, Conference Proceeding
Language	English	Non-English
Timeline	Between 2006 and 2023	<2006
Type of data	Primary Data	Secondary Data, Panel Series, Systematic Review
Crop type	Rice, Paddy	Legumes & Beans, Non-Food Crop Cassava, Yam, Potato, Plantain
Unit of analysis	Farmers	Non-farmers

Systematic review process

The systematic review method comprises four stages outlined in the PRISMA guideline. The search was conducted on 21 September 2023. The initial stage involved the identification of keywords utilised during the search procedure. The present investigation included terminology often utilised in previous scholarly research, specifically focusing on terms associated with sustainable production, adoption, decision-making, rice farmers and communication. This paper provides the search string employed in the systematic review method as supplementary materials.

The subsequent phase entailed the process of screening. Although 3259 articles were deemed suitable for evaluation, a cumulative count of 3143 articles were excluded. The final stage of the study involved assessing eligibility by accessing the entire list of publications. Upon thorough scrutiny, a comprehensive analysis resulted in the exclusion of 58 papers based on several grounds, including their lack of relevance to the specific field of study, absence of focus on rice farmers, and lack of primary data in their research. The final phase of the evaluation process yielded a cumulative count of 49 articles employed to conduct a qualitative analysis. The screening process is depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram for identification of articles in the review..

Data abstraction and analysis

A total of 49 papers were acquired to conduct a thorough study and evaluation. The analysis primarily concentrated on categorising sustainable practices and the decision-making behind their adoption by rice farmers. The processes by which rice farmers communicate and make decisions on the adoption of sustainability practices were determined. The data was obtained through the process of assessing the abstracts before a thorough examination of the articles. Qualitative analysis was performed using content analysis and topic analysis methodologies. This feature facilitates the organisation and classification of various topics and their corresponding sub-themes. The results were analysed and interpreted in the subsequent section.

Results

The 49 documents were analysed to identify and answer the overarching research questions in this systematic literature review. The findings were divided into two sections. The first section describes the baseline findings from the article. This includes describing the article’s origin, the number of articles throughout the years and several other key-measuring indicators. The second section delineates the theories and factors affecting rice farmers’ motivation to adopt sustainable rice production through the process of thematic analysis.

Baseline findings

The article investigating factors for rice farmers adopting sustainable rice production can be traced as early as 2014. However, only two articles were published during that year. The growth grew at a slow pace until 2020. After that, the number of papers grew exponentially; the highest number can be traced to 2023, in which 18 articles were published. Most of the studies are conducted in China, where ten (10) articles are reported. It is followed by Vietnam and Iran, where each country reported five (5) pieces. Only one study has been documented in Benin, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the United States of America. Figure 2 provides the map of where the studies are located.

Figure 2. Map of countries where the studies are located.

Overall, 38 studies employed quantitative research design as the research methodology. This is equivalent to 78% of the overall studies. The remaining 22% of the studies are engaged with qualitative research design (7 studies at 14%) or mixed method (4 studies at 8%). Regarding the sustainable rice production approach reported by studies identified in the review, 34 studies posited that farmers are utilising sustainable management as a form of sustainable production. This included an improvised rice crop management system, conservative agricultural practices, and smart farming. Three (3) studies reported using sustainable inputs such as bio-pesticides or green manure. Nine (9) studies highlighted sustainable breeds, including hybrid or better-performing breeds. The rest of the studies observed different approaches, such as low-carbon technology and green production. Figures 3 and 4 visualise both methods of research and sustainable production approaches.

Figure 3. Research design reported in the studies.

Figure 4. Sustainable production approach reported in the studies.

Thematic findings

This review identified factors influencing rice farmers’ decision-making in adopting sustainable approaches to rice production. Three significant components were recognised as the central factors influencing rice farmers to adopt sustainable rice production systems. The first component is the individual factor. Individuals are essential in determining the adoption and farmers’ adoption of the sustainable approach. As the sustainable approach is considered a new practice, several technology adoption theories were applied by the studies in this literature. For instance, in a survey conducted by Nguyen and colleagues in Vietnam, it was reported that the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) could explain farmers’ decision to adopt precision agriculture, which is one of the essential technologies sustainable farm practices (Nguyen et al., 2023). Besides UTAUT, scholars also applied the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to explain farmers’ decisions in the adoption process. In a study conducted in China, Gong and colleagues examined the role of risk in an extended model based on TAM in explaining farmers’ adoption of biopesticides in rice production (Gong et al., 2022). Similarly, Dong and colleagues also investigated variables in TAM as explanatory factors in a sustainable rice production system in China (Dong et al., 2022).

Besides, several authors utilised behavioural theories to study the individual components. Valizadeh and colleagues reported that factors such as attitude and perceived behaviour control, which is central in the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), can justify why Iranian rice farmers decided to adopt the usage of green manure in their rice farming (Valizadeh et al., 2023). Li and colleagues also reported that factors in TPB, such as perceived behaviour control, could explain farmers’ decision to adopt rice-green manure (Li et al., 2021). Studies in this review also highlighted the functional roles of utility factors in farmer’s adoption decisions. Farmers were reported to have relied on risk perception before adopting a sustainable rice system. Kyire and colleagues posited that farmers in Ghana were influenced by market risk perception before making any notable decision in rice farming (Kyire et al., 2023). In line with the findings from Kyire et al. (2023), Rosenberg and colleagues highlighted the roles of economic feasibility in determining the rice farmers’ decision. (Rosenberg et al., 2022).

Besides individual components, the second and third significant are societal, institutional, or structural factors. The societal factor explains that the farmer’s decision to adopt sustainable practices is influenced by their community or peers. Mohankumar and colleagues conducted a Social Network Analysis (SNA) to map sources of information among individual farmers. Through their findings, they reported that the farmers were obtaining more details from informative or relative farmers rather than the extension officer (Mohankumar et al., 2023). However, in another study conducted by Ferrer and colleagues in North-Central Vietnam, it was found that having strong social support from family members hindered the rice farmers from adopting Climate Smart Agricultural Technology (CSAT), an approach to sustainable farming (Ferrer et al., 2023).

The final component is institutional or structural. Studies that fall under this component argued that the rice farmer’s decision could be explained by the strong knowledge support from the government or the provision of materials in the form of subsidy to the farmers. For instance, Shi and colleagues highlighted the need for government intervention to strengthen Southern China’s Agricultural Service System to increase farmers’ green behaviour (Shi et al., 2023). Similarly, another study in Vietnam reported that extension services must be strengthened to increase rice farmers’ adoption of sustainable practices (Connor et al., 2021). The list of components, theories and studies can be found in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Major components and theoretical perspective identified in the thematic analysis.

Component	Theoretical perspective	Authors
Individual	Innovation diffusion	(Arsil et al., 2022)
		(Shah et al., 2016)
	Technology Acceptance Model	(Zaman et al., 2023)
		(Gong et al., 2022)
		(Manalo et al., 2022)
		(Ashoori et al., 2019)
		(Ashari et al., 2018)
		(Abdollahzadeh et al., 2017)
	Theory of Planned Behaviour	(Jiang et al., 2022)
		(Valizadeh et al., 2023)
		(Li et al., 2021)
	Theory of Planned Behaviour and Technology Acceptance Model (Integration)	(Dong et al., 2022)
		(Xiang & Guo, 2023)
	Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology	(Nguyen et al., 2023)
	Utility Theory – Multiple Factors	(Chen & Chen, 2022)
		(Rosenberg et al., 2022)
		(Hayat et al., 2022)
		(Sujianto et al., 2022)
		(Hoang, 2021)
		(Mao et al., 2021)
		(Hayat et al., 2020)
		(Suwanmaneepong et al., 2020)
		(Xiong & He, 2020)
		(Digal & Placencia, 2019)
		(Tsinigo & Behrman, 2017)
		(Nadaf Fahmideh et al., 2017)
		(Yokouchi & Saito, 2016)
		(Srisopaporn et al., 2015)
		(Devi et al., 2014)
	Utility Theory – Risk	(Kyire et al., 2023)
		(Ambali et al., 2021)
		(Salaisook et al., 2020)
		(Mahdavi et al., 2020)
		(Mishra et al., 2018)
Institutional/Structural	Institutional Theory	(Suwanmaneepong et al., 2023)
		(Upendram et al., 2023)
		(Shi et al., 2023)
		(Ho et al., 2022)
		(Connor et al., 2021)
		(Hayat et al., 2020)
		(Emmanuel et al., 2016)
		(Wiredu et al., 2015)
		(Pattanapant & Shivakoti, 2014)
Social	Social Learning theory	(Ferrer et al., 2023)
	Social Network Theory	(Mohankumar et al., 2023)
		(Mamiit et al., 2021)
		(Le et al., 2020)
		(Walisinghe et al., 2017)

Discussion

Multiple studies in this review highlighted the significance of extension support in facilitating the adoption of sustainable practices among rice farmers (Abdollahzadeh et al., 2017; Gong et al., 2022; Hayat et al., 2022; Manalo et al., 2022). The management of farm operations often falls under the purview of the farmers’ expertise (Ashari et al., 2018; Pattanapant & Shivakoti, 2014). It is argued that agricultural knowledge acquisition is facilitated through practical experience and transmitted from generation to generation. This generational knowledge provides rice farmers with the necessary information to comprehend innovation and the importance of sustainable farm practices. For instance, findings from Ho and colleagues indicated that experiential learning has influenced the rice farmers in the Mekong Delta to either adapt or drop the usage of newer, more sustainable rice varieties (Ho et al., 2022). Findings from this review echoed several other studies that show a sustainable rice variety will have better efficiency in consuming resources such as water and fertilisers (Tho & Umetsu, 2022). This resulted in a more sustainable production yet maintained the intensification.

However, exclusively relying on experiential knowledge would not suffice for farmers to comprehend or use recently presented innovations. Therefore, providing extension support facilitates the dissemination of information and techniques about novel technologies or innovations among farmers (Debnath et al., 2020, 2023). This finding aligns with previous research that underscores the significance of extension services and education in influencing farmers’ acceptance and utilisation of novel technological advancements (Schut et al., 2015; Suvedi et al., 2017).

Besides that, findings from this study indicated that farmers interact with the concept of sustainable agriculture similarly to how they interact with new technology. Moreover, adapting to sustainable practices in rice production and paddy farming might require implementing new technology, such as green technology or more sustainable machinery. Hence, some studies in this review showed how the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is a beneficial theory in communicating sustainable practices in rice production. One of the central parts of TAM focuses on perceived usefulness, where the farmers believe a new technology will be helpful to them.

Regarding sustainable rice production intensification, this review identified that farmers’ intention to shift to the new production system is influenced positively by perceived usefulness. As reported by a study conducted in China, the decision to integrate rice production with shrimp production is not only due to the ability of the integration to reduce carbon production but also to its capability to give profit to the farmers (Dong et al., 2022). Similarly, the study reported by Manalo and colleagues in the Philippines also indicated that farmers’ decision to adopt sustainable practices in their rice production depends on their ability to identify the usefulness of those practices (Manalo et al., 2022). Similarly, other fields outside rice production also highlighted the capacity of perceived efficacy to explain users’ decision to adopt sustainable practices (Hannus & Sauer, 2021).

Farmers are commonly perceived as engaging in observational and imitative learning through observing and emulating their peers’ actions. It is reported in past studies that social learning is considered a significant determinant in the process of farmers’ accepting any new approaches, practices, technology or innovation (Ashaari et al., 2023; Sanchez-Toledano et al., 2017). Similarly, in this review, multiple studies have reported that a strong social connection leads to better acceptance of more efficient and productive rice production (Mamiit et al., 2021). Additionally, the study in this review indicates that relationships fostered in a small household (i.e. husband and wife) expanded amongst other homes within the villages. This relationship network then enhances knowledge sharing of sustainable practices (Le et al., 2020). The farmer’s family member roles are unique in that they indirectly help communicate amongst other households and allow better dissemination of sustainable technologies and practices. Arguably, findings from this review are shared with other studies in the realm of agriculture. The potential advantages of social learning can be observed in small-scale farming, commonly perceived as a communal endeavour (Gao et al., 2023). The environment in question engenders an interdependent system wherein farmers rely on one another for labour, information, capital, and assistance.

The mutually beneficial relationship between farmers and the social elements sheds light on the concept of the social norm and its roles in adoption. Social norms transcended individual personal utility towards unique, societal utility. Societal utility refers to how an individual perceives high-value social value and inclusion (Le et al., 2020). It is noteworthy to highlight that both social norms and gender norms have been recognised as influential factors in farmers’ adoption of sustainable practices in rice production, as shown in several studies in this review (Le et al., 2020; Valizadeh et al., 2023; Xiang & Guo, 2023).

Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) emphasised the significance of social norms in their Theory of Planned Behaviour, hence underscoring its prevalence. Numerous studies have embraced and examined this notion, which posits that the influence of social norms can elucidate farmers’ adoption of new technology. Similarly, this can be applied to sustainable practices. Farmers want to avoid being perceived as aberrant within the established societal norms, particularly when adopting technological advancements that necessitate a paradigm shift from conventional knowledge practices. Adopting organic and digital farming practices may challenge farmers to deviate from their established customary norms. Hence, it is crucial for an agricultural community that places significant emphasis on social standards to acquire approval from selected leaders or institutions.

In addition, subjective norms exhibit a strong association with the social network that emerges from the interactions between farmers and individuals in their immediate vicinity, as well as with the broader public and governmental entities. Presently, three distinct categories of social networks have been identified: the interpersonal social network (ISN) (Conge et al., 1988), the organisational social network (OSN) (Kilduff & Brass, 2010), and the authoritarian social network (ASN) (Ho & Edmonds, 2007). The impact of three distinct social networks on farmers’ adoption of eco-friendly farming practices has been examined in a prior study (Khan & Damalas, 2015). Similarly, findings in several studies in this review reported on the importance of social networks, which can influence and benefit rice farmers in acquiring new knowledge and practices related to sustainable rice production (Le et al., 2020; Mamiit et al., 2021; Mohankumar et al., 2023; Salaisook et al., 2020).

Studies found in this review also highlight the essentiality of communication-based theories in explaining rice farmers’ adoption towards sustainability practices. Nguyen and colleagues examined and reported the ability of the model based on the extended Unified Theory of Acceptance Technology (UTAUT) to explain the adoption of cleaner rice production (Nguyen et al., 2023). They also indicated that Rogers’ innovation diffusion theory is also beneficial to the model, in which they highlight the significance of observability and trialability in explaining farmers’ decisions. The findings are similar to those of other studies investigating farmers’ decisions to adopt new technology (Lavoie et al., 2021; Mannan et al., 2017).

All theories are interrelated in revealing the strength of explaining farmers’ decision to adopt sustainable rice production. However, the theories examined and tested in studies reported in this review can be distinguished into social-based or functional-utility-based influences. Farmers’ decisions to adopt are based on how the new practices are easy to use and valuable to them. This can be segmented into functional utility. At the same time, farmers rely on social or community where they will emulate any practices made by the other respective farmers. The reason to adopt modifications depends on how strongly the community is influenced. Farmers might adapt due to concerns about being isolated or persistent persuasion from community members. These two significant factors chart the path to understanding rice farmers’ decision to practice sustainable production.

Although multiple studies in this review have indicated either social-based or functional utility that led to the farmers’ decisions, other studies further highlighted some factors contributing to the farmers’ decisions. Review results presented in this research revealed that farmers’ willingness to accept sustainable production of rice is influenced by factors including the farmers’ access to agricultural service systems and access to education (Connor et al., 2021; Mahdavi et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2023). Extension officers can also teach agricultural education. Frequent contact with extension agents enables them to learn more technical skills and improve their farming approach (Chandio & Yuansheng, 2018; Checco et al., 2023). Farmers can concentrate on improving their productivity when these fundamental demands are met. Other than that, studies in this review also suggested that the government must take more proactive approaches (Bannor et al., 2020). This includes providing monetary assistance through subsidies to help the farmers reduce risks in implementing new strategies in their farming (Emmanuel et al., 2016).

Another crucial aspect that warrants attention is the influence of farm or plot size on farmers’ propensity to accept new technology (Digal & Placencia, 2019). Multiple studies have documented that farmers who possess smaller plots of land or engage in small-scale farming exhibit a greater tendency to embrace new and novel technologies (Tsinigo & Behrman, 2017; Varma, 2019). This phenomenon may be attributed to the motivation of farmers with limited land holdings to enhance their production to augment their income. These individuals cannot experience the advantages of the ‘economy of scale’ that could be enjoyed by other more extensive agricultural operations. Furthermore, small land holdings are equivalent to lower risks and reduce devastating impacts if any issues occur.

Moreover, studies in this review also highlighted the role of government agencies in promoting awareness of sustainable rice production among farmers (Chen & Chen, 2022; Ferrer et al., 2023). These factors can be regressed into one major factor: institutional support. Institutional support is fundamental in assisting farmers, especially in mitigating vulnerabilities in adopting sustainable rice production.

Conclusion

This study was motivated by the need to review current literature to identify how rice farmers worldwide accept and adopt sustainable rice production. Rice is a staple food for more than 50% of the global population. While food production is essential to achieving the food demand of a growing population, agricultural and food production intensification is a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Rice production accounts for around 19%–29% of worldwide GHG emissions (Nikolaisen et al., 2023). Furthermore, the planting period alone contributed to 10% of worldwide GHG emissions. The stark contrast between food security demand and carbon footprint reduction resulted in remedial action. Thus, the world shifted towards sustainable rice production. Producing rice sustainably through multiple approaches could ‘kill two birds with one stone’. Food security demands and the reduction of carbon footprint can be fulfilled through various methods such as new breed technology, precision agriculture, cleaner production, and several other systems.

Although sustainable agriculture production began several decades ago, a review study involving sustainable rice production is yet to be observed. Current studies mainly focus on the technicalities of sustainable rice production (Jamal et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2023). This study aimed to identify factors contributing to adopting sustainable rice production through a systematic review of academic articles. In doing so, this study identified four significant pillars that comprehensively describe how the farmers decided to adopt sustainable rice production. The pillars are institutional systems, societal/community, experiential learning and functional-utility.

Despite this distinction, farmers sometimes look into all four pillars before deciding to adopt sustainable rice production. These four pillars regressed from all 60 studies and have proven critical for future studies in sustainable rice production. It provides both academia and practitioners with a bird’s eye view of how farmers accept sustainable rice production. Future studies can focus on how to strengthen any of the pillars, or they can also focus on how to find the best approaches to integrate all of them. Furthermore, future studies can explore how farmers decide to shift from one system to another, as well as examine how the pillars interact with one another to produce a synergistic effect.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ammar Redza Ahmad Rizal

Ammar Redza Ahmad Rizal is a senior lecturer at the Centre for Research in Media and Communication, Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. His research interest is on innovation diffusion, adoption study, strategic communication, communication in politics and democracy. Email: [email protected]

Shahrina Md Nordin

Shahrina Md Nordin is a professor and director at Institute of Self Sustainable Building, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia. Her current research involves Corporate Social Responsibility, strategic communication and innovation diffusion. Email: [email protected]

Rafidah Abd Rashid

Rafidah Abd Rashid is doctoral candidate at Centre of Social Innovation, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia. Her research interest is on farmers’ adoption of new technologies. Email: [email protected]

Nurzihan Hassim

Nurzihan Hassim is a senior lecturer at the Centre for Research in Media & Communication (MENTION), Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Her research interests include cultural and new media studies, specifically youths and behavioural change in the digital sphere. Email: [email protected]