A descriptive study of gender inequality in proverbs of mewati language

Abstract

Language performs a variety of functions and specifically it acts as a primary vehicle for transmitting cultural norms, values and expectations even the thought paradigms from one generation to another. Language is a mirror which reflects the past of a society, and chronicles of history testify to this claim. The essentials and crystallization of a culture’s norms and conventions are recorded through its proverbs and platitudes. Through proverbs, we can get deep insight into lifestyle, ethical standards and socio-cultural norms of a particular locality or society. This research intends to explore the contribution of proverbs from Mewati language in the development of gender inequality and ambivalence in Mewati society. A sample consisting of gender-related proverbs from Mewati language has been selected. Selected proverbs have been translated and transcribed in English Language; then are categorized and interpreted with the relevance to genders and their roles in constructing the gender inequality in the society. Ambivalent Sexism Theory has been applied to the selected proverbs. The findings of the study reveal that proverbs from Mewati language portray men positively, whereas the women are portrayed either in a misogynist manner or ambivalently suppressing their positivity, uniqueness and intellect. The research is anticipated to motivate future researchers to conduct further research on Mewati cultural and folk discourse to draw attention towards the significance of equal treatment of both genders, and to introduce gender equality reforms within the Mewati community.

Keywords:

• Mewati
• Proverbs
• Gender
• Inequality
• Ambivalence
• Sexism

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Pakistan is a complex multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural state where various cultures, customs and social norms have been interacting. Language performs a variety of functions and specifically it acts as a primary vehicle for transmitting cultural norms, values and expectations even the thought paradigms from one generation to another. The essentials and crystallization of a culture’s norms and conventions are recorded through its proverbs and platitudes. Through proverbs, we can get deep insight into lifestyle, ethical standards and socio-cultural norms of a particular locality or society. This research explores the contribution of proverbs from Mewati language in the development of gender inequality and ambivalence in Mewati society. The findings of the study reveal that proverbs from Mewati language portray men positively, whereas the women are portrayed negatively.

1. Introduction

Pakistan is a complex multilingual, multiethnic, and multicultural state where various cultures, customs, and social norms have been interacting. Caste system is one of the prominent systems in Pakistan. In five provinces of the country, almost hundreds of castes are settled such as Jutt, Cheema, Rajput, Pathans, Balochi, Sindhi, Punjabi, etc. Rajput multi-component cluster of castes in Pakistan. It is further divided into various offshoots: Rana, Nagra, Ranger, Mewati, etc. Among these castes, many are still unexplored, and so far no research has been conducted on their lives and lifestyles. Mewati is also one of them. Mewati is a brave nation of Mewat, an ancient region in India. The language spoken by them is called Mewati language. So, the word Mewati is used, both, for the speakers and the language itself. According to Fareed (2016) Mewati language possesses great literary work which includes folklore, poetic ballads, dialects, and fables. Proverbs also are an important part of Mewati language and Literature. Proverbs are a traditional source of representing wisdom by Mewati people in their everyday lives, and are transmitted orally from generation to generation. Katozai (2005) states that proverbs play a vital role in guiding human life in every aspect. Tahir and Edwards (2006) assert that proverbs are loaded with meanings, which ultimately construe a worldview and way of life.

A lot of work has been done on proverbs of various languages, however, in the Mewati language, this area is still unexplored. Arewa and Dundes (1964) propound that the proverbs are the general sayings that depict the picture of society. Proverbs are the manifestations of social norms, but they also shape the social ideology as well. They are greatly influenced by social norms and patterns, and in turn they influence them as well. The proverbs carry the impersonal power for the verbal manifestation of the societal values and beliefs. Adesida (2007) discusses that proverbs describe social norms on the basis of gender as they highlight power relations in society. Thus, by studying the proverbs of a particular language, one can easily understand how gender is presented in that language.

1.1. Gender and mewati proverbs

Gender based discrimination has been prevailing in every era and society. Language is the major tool to incorporate gender biasness in a society. Apart from the routine utterances, the linguistic proverbs and folklore decide the supremacy of one gender in a particular society. The contribution of Mewati linguistic proverbs in the development of gender inequality is eminent in Mewati society. The portrayal of men and women in proverbs from Mewati language intends to mark the patriarchal trends in Mewati society as reflected in the language of Mewati proverbs. This study attempts to investigate the subject of gender inequality and ambivalence as represented through the medium of Mewati language proverbs. The study examines the proverbs from Mewati language to depict gender representation in society, and it also aims to infer an in-depth understanding of the Mewati proverbs from a gender perspective. Following research questions are addressed in the present study:

1. How males and females are portrayed in proverbs from Mewati language?

2. How do proverbs from Mewati language portray ambivalent sexism towards women?

3. How do proverbs from Mewati language play a pivotal part in the construction of ambivalence and inequality in Mewati context?

2. Literature review

Meo or Mewati is a prominent Muslim Rajput tribe of the subcontinent from India. Mewati language is the maternal tongue and vernacular (non-standard dialect) of Meo or Mewati people who are the natives of Mewat (a region of the northwestern part of ancient India, present-day Haryana). Mewati language belongs to the Indo-Aryan languages of the sub-continent and resembles Haryanvi, BhrajBhasha, and Rajasthani. It is reported that many of Mewat people migrated from India to Pakistan after 1947 and settled in different parts of the country. Further, Mewati language has not been standardized with an official script. The literature and linguistic proverbs of the Mewati language have been transferred only verbally from ancestors to their successors. However, the Mewati language has a great literary treasure including both poetry and prose.

According to Mieder (2014), a proverb is a concise, commonly used traditional sentence which comprises moral values, wisdom, truth and traditional interpretation in a figurative, secure and memorable form which is passed on from one generation to another. Values and beliefs are codified and manifested in all aspects of linguistic communication, such as popular expressions, shared vocabulary, oral traditions, conversational rules, and modes of interaction. Proverbs refer to the universal truths and normalized sayings that are regularly used as précised expressions about society (Rasul, 2015). These proverbs are then utilized as a tool for managing transfer of traditional norms and values from one generation to the next with a slight or no variation (Pervaz et al., 2021). The abstract verbal codification of cultural values is widely accepted and followed blindly. Sooner, they become the part of that very culture (ibid). Proverbs enjoy unique significance in the context of gender biasedness as they induce, illustrate, and perpetuate the power relations in the society (ibid).

The previous studies conducted on African proverbs with reference to gender by Asimeng-Boahene (2013), Balogun (2010), Machaba (2011), Mpungose (2010), and Ncube and Moyo (2011), regarding different societies by applying different methodologies show strikingly similar findings about representation of men and women in those proverbs. These studies reported that women are presented in a degrading way in the language of African proverbs, whereas men are presented in a positive way (ibid). Hussein (2005) analyzed the role of African proverbs in building the foundation of masculinity and femininity. He observed that African proverbs perpetuate specific gender biased legacies and pervasive ideologies as they associate maleness with prestige, wisdom, firmness, or strength while associating feminity with meekness, disrespect, inconsistency, and fragility (ibid). Nisrane and Tizazu (2019) worked on Gurage proverbs and concluded that most of the Gurage proverbs portray women negatively as physically weak, immature, greedy, and incapable creatures, not competent enough to carry out any fieldwork or business activity. However, there are only a handful of proverbs that portray women positively such as a motivator, cherisher, committed, and devoted persons in the roles of mothers or wives. Ambu-Saidi (2010) studied Omani proverbs, and Diabah and AppiahAmfo (2015) interpreted Akan proverbs with similar findings.

Alhassan (2012) analyzed Dagbanli proverbs and reported that negative portrayal of females, in proverbs, is deleterious both intellectually and socially, and such presentation of female persona contrasts sharply against visibly positive representation of men. However, at very few instances, uniqueness of the woman as mother and wife is applauded. Rasul (2015) analyzed Urdu and English proverbs and came up with conclusion that both English Urdu proverbs depict women as weak, inferior, subsidiary, and emotional beings. Nearly all proverbs of both English and Urdu presented women with lack of sense, silence, strength, and rationality. They are considered troublesome and untrustworthy and greedy, and they are projected as degraded and immoral objects of satisfaction (ibid). Khan et al. (2015) studied Pakhtun proverbs and revealed that women are depicted in Pashtun proverbs as stereotypically demeaned creatures, and men as reputedly superior beings. They also argued that Pakhtun proverbs not only reflect but also conserve, propagate, and perpetuate gender bias.

L. A. Khan (2005) examined Punjabi proverbs; revealing that the manifestation of women in Punjabi proverbs are widely face-threatening as they have been portrayed as devilish, trouble makers, imprudent, insensible, inefficient and gaudy. Meanwhile, men have been presented mostly in a face-saving manner as they have been portrayed mostly as essential, self-reliant, vibrant, strong, noble, sensible, decisive, adventurous beings who are always ready to take challenges. Sagheer and Zubair (2020) analyzed Punjabi proverbs and came up with results that women are presented in Punjabi proverbs as weak, inferior, and much more dependent on men in terms of social, political, and economic securities. They also noted that women receive an asymmetrical and lower status in family and conjugal relationships (i.e. husband-wife, father-mother, brother-sister, son daughter) where their male counterparts wield the ruling positions in all spheres and circumstances. The worth of women’s social status, identity and standing in the community is widely ignored (ibid). Khan et al. (2015) explored Punjabi proverbs with reference to gender representation, and came up with result that proverbs generally more targeted and made fun of the feminine characters as compared to male characters. They also concluded that Punjabi proverbs strongly follow the all principles of conservative society and hold fast patriarchy as the governing motif of the society. Punjabi proverbs not only represent but also propagate, perpetuate, and cherish gender bias and inequalities.

Glick and Fiske (2001) shared the idea of ambivalence sexism and ambivalent sexism inventory (ASI), explaining the cultural impairments that leads to hostile and benevolent gender ideologies among male and female. The theory is chosen for its holistic approach to cover all kinds of gender inequalities and patronized patriarchy in the society through proverbs. Lomotey and Chachu (2020) have used the particular framework to analyze the Spanish and French proverbs. The gendered proverbs selected for the analysis are explicit in sense that they represent a real society where euphemism is applied to trivialize the obscene ideas. The goal of the present research is to bridge the gap found in the previous research on the functions of proverbs on gender construction. This research intends to interpret Mewati linguistic proverbs from the perspective of gender construction and ambivalence. It discusses the language as a discriminating tool used for women in Mewati proverbs. This research also sheds light on the history and development of Mewati language.

3. Research methodology

The present research study is descriptive in nature. A qualitative research method (content analysis) by the researchers is employed to identify the gender-specific proverbs and develop thematic categories of the selected proverbs. The dictionary of Mewati proverbs Khazi-ny-Mewat (a secondary data source) have been selected to get gender-related proverbs. Initially, 473 proverbs (most common in mewati context) were taken from the dictionary. However, from the corpus of 473 Mewati proverbs, a sample of 80 gender specific Mewati proverbs have been finally selected for analysis using purposive sampling technique. The selected sampled proverbs explicitly reflect ambivalent sexism and gender inequality in the Mewati culture. The selected sample of gender specific Mewati proverbs were first thematically categorized into different groups. Proverbs are qualitatively studied with comparative analysis of the genders in the Mewati society. Mewati Proverbs have been compared within two categories, male and female, on the basis of characters targeted in the Mewati language proverbs. Then, these proverbs have been further divided into subcategories on the basis of traits associated with the first two categories.

3.1. Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework for the present study is chosen under the lens of ambivalent sexism theory by Glick and Fiske (2001) and (Glick & Fiske, 2011). This theory discusses the gender portrayal and relations between them through the array of ambivalence. The gender ambivalence is highlighted through hostile and benevolent sexism. Hostile sexism (HS) focuses upon the rigid misogyny towards women. Benevolent Sexism (BS) emphasizes upon the women’ survival in the society with the favorable dependence on society and patriarchy, favoring both types include paternalism, gender differentiation and heterosexuality to reflect the gradually developed ambivalence and hatred towards women in the Mewati society.

Table

Sr.	Sexism	Paternalism	Gender Differentiation	Heterosexuality
1.	Hostile Sexism (HS)	Dominative Paternalism	Competitive Gender Differentiation	Heterosexual Hostility
2.	Benevolent Sexism (BS)	Protective Paternalism	Complementary Gender Differentiation	Heterosexual Intimacy

The following table briefly sheds light on the layout of Ambivalent Sexism Theory

Prior to discussing anything regarding analysis of the themes prevailing in the proverb, let us define the technical terms for the better understanding the concepts posited in this work.

Dominative Paternalism: It represents the idea that women are devoid of wisdom. They must be made obedient towards men.

Protective Paternalism: The idea promotes the belief that male domination is beneficial for women in the society. Due to their wisdom, physical dominance, men are supposed to protect and cherish females in the society.

Competitive Gender Differentiation: The belief is that women play inferior roles in the society as compared to men who manage society, family matters and financial security.

Complementary Gender Differentiation: The belief is that women are complemented only by their maternal and self-less traditional traits within the society. Their inability or unwillingness to act according to standardized norms robs them of all honor and respect. while men are applauded for their bravery, decisive abilities and great fortune.

Heterosexual Hostility: It represents the hostility and distress faced by women for their sexuality and beauty. This way woman’s aura and attractiveness is portrayed in negative sense to cite it as a reason of disgrace to the society.

Heterosexual Intimacy: This concept emphasizes woman as a romantic entity whose core function is to complements men and the society.

These proverbs are then interpreted and contrasted in terms of the hostile sexism (HS) and benevolent sexism (BS). Research questions are answered about the portrayal of men and women in Mewati linguistic proverbs and how Mewati linguistic proverbs play a role in the construction of gender inequality in Mewati society.

4. Data analysis

Women are, generally, portrayed as unimportant, weak, insensible beings, which always play second fiddle to their male counterparts and Mewati linguistic proverbs. The findings of this research partly resembles to the results of the previous researches done by Khan et al. (2015); Sanauddin (2015) and others. However, the analytical framework selected, for this study is the ambivalent sexism theory. Here is the discussion of the themes recurrent in the selected sample of the proverbs

4.1. Paternalism

One of the key features of the Mewati society is to consider women the weaker sex needed to be controlled and protected by the male members of the society.

4.1.1. Dominative paternalism

Aurat ki aqa lguddi (p. 111) (woman’s intellect is at the back). Similar to what Khan and Ali (2018) quotes about the Unintelligent Women in Punjabi language, Mewati proverbs tag women with absence of gray matter. They ought to follow the footsteps of men. Murd ki gurd bhi bhali (p. 149) (Even the dust of a man’s feet has importance). Mewati language portrays men a source of strength and power to the family as well as a guarantee to future prospects of being followed by other. Bina naathkighaain (p.113.) (A cow without a bull) A woman is incomplete without a husband. She could only be respected if she gets a husband to follow. For a woman, husband is her element of pride. Galaykohaar p.137(Necklace); for a husband, woman is a valueless object. paaonkijooti (p. 139) (The footwear). Dominative Paternalism is eminent in Mewati proverbs. Abiding by the rules of paternity is mandatory for every female in the Mewati culture.

4.1.2. Protective paternalism

Bhai bahenan ko rakhwa lore hway (p. 114) (A brother is a protector for his sisters). In Mewati linguistic proverbs, brothers are portrayed as guards for their sisters, especially in their in-laws’ house. Ja k bhaibahoo Ghana, wakaysurgoodaish; Ja k bhaimarrjanawakorolohansikhai l(p. 113) (A sister of wealthy brothers always remains dominant in her in-laws, while a sister of deprived brothers has to live like slaves). The sisters feel confident when they have wealthy and socially strong brothers at their back to support them for any misbehave, committed by their in-laws and husbands. In ‏‏‏Mewati context, the one who helps in the hour of need is considered a kin. Bhai o Jo waqtpekam aa way (p. 113) (Who comes in need, is surely a brother). However, the word “brother” has been used to portray care and protection rather than a sister.

Protecting someone is the archetypic quality of male members only. Bachaygu so apsoo, nabachy sagabaapsoo(p. 117) (A woman can save herself but cannot protect). Women might save themselves but cannot be the caretakers of someone else; Men are required to manage women around them. Gaye nabachinend aye achi (p. 144) (One with no woman no daughter sleeps peacefully). Men, who do not have women, remain much relaxed and free.

Mewati proverbs contain male motifs (brothers and sons) for protecting and supporting females to survive safely in the society. All such concepts portray protective paternalism in the Mewati context.

4.2. Gender differentiation

Unlike Western communities, South Asian societies are comparatively more gender biased. The availability of both masculine and feminine motifs in the same proverbs is rare. The Mewati also society provides comparative proverbs to differentiate between man and woman on the basis of gender.

4.2.1. CompetitiveGender differentiation

Daughters are portrayed as an unwanted creature in Mewati linguistic proverbs. Beti too seenaki sill ay (p. 90) (Daughter is like a heavy stone on the chest of parents. They are considered burden on their parents. BetisoodarrNaleggayyakanaseebsoodarrleggay (p. 90) (The birth of a daughter does not terrify but her (bad) fate does so). They are considered as unwelcomed guests and their birth is not celebrated rather their birth opens up the doors for miseries, disgrace, and suffering for the family. Beta jaisinaimat rub haraik lo deway (p. 115) (A blessing like son should be given to everyone). In Mewati society, sons are presented as the most important part of family and their birth is celebrated. Male babies are given more importance as compared to female babies. They are considered a blessing rather than a burden.Mol Soo pyarobyaaj(p. 150) (Grandsons are dearer than sons).KermenKodhanihy(p. 123) (Most fortunate member of the family). Men are, generally, portrayed in a positive way as compared to women. Men are viewed as strong, brave, and superior to women. PutraanKonawab (p. 85) (A king by birth); Men are marked as the central member and fortune of the family.

DulhanAyiNagrmain,SugrodekhayGaoun (p. 129) (All villagers judge the newlywed bride). Women are often judged for their beauty, dressing, and gait from the very first day. Krninakartoot, phoharhlarhankomazboot (Unskilled women are always ready to argue). Women are judged for their competence of domestic chores. Itnisijaan, ghazbharkizubaan(p. 112) (Fair sex with opinions). In the conservative society of Mewat, women are expected to be excellent house-wives with poor sense of opinion. Aetuchalatihai (p. 111) (She yells), AeTuaalaraasih (p. 111) (She is ignorant). Women, who speak in a louder voice and carry strong opinion, are claimed to be ignorant family women. Kala moo ki (p. 140) (Ominous), kali jiboohai p.140 (Jinxed). Even if the females are correct, they are marked as irrelevant and ill-tongued.

MaindakiChaliMadarki (p. 151) (Female going to work). If a woman tries to work, she is mocked at and compared as a female frog. Men who do not work and avoid efforts, are compared with women. Paoun main mehndi lgana (p. 117) (Wearing woman’s ornaments). People who adorn themselves are regarded as been lower versions of women. Kaathkimoorti or chandanhaar (p. 147) (Ugly woman with ornamentation). Mewati Proverbs define strong gender roles and competitive archetypical qualities of males and females. They highlight competitive differentiation in both genders of the society.

4.2.2. Complementary gender differentiation

The Mewati linguistic proverbs represent the already defined roles of men and women. The society appreciates both genders if they act according to their assigned roles and strictly observe their defined boundaries.

Gharki rani (p. 145) (The queen of house); Gharkisoobhagharwalisoo (p. 145) (The pride of house remains with the wife). Women are expected to keep themselves adorned and decorated to look beautiful all the time. SolhaSingharBateesAban (p. 135) (Woman adorns herself completely). Mewati linguistic proverbs appreciate wives in a positive way in relation to their household only. Khasamtu sur kotaajrehwy (p. 110) (Husband is a crown of one’s head). In Mewati linguistic proverbs, husbands are presented as authoritative and are considered as source of bread earning for the family.

However, in some cases, a disobedient son is considered a burden for his parents and a source of disrespect to his manhood; aik he poot; o b kapoot (p. 82) (A single son and he too is a guttersnipe). However, men are also criticized through proverbs in Mewati society;Aap harry; bahooko marry (p. 83) (When a coward man gets defeated, he accuses his wife and beat her in revenge). Coward men are portrayed in Mewati society as men who scapegoat their wives and label them as the reason of their defeat instead of taking the responsibility on themselves. Mewati linguistic proverbs criticize such an attitude and provoke men to be courageous and daunting to fight in an honorable manner. Na muradmareykhaanko; muradmareynaamko (p. 125) (An unimportant man dies for food, while a real man dies for the honor). This proverb is differentiating men on the basis of their reactions in different situations. The importance of manhood is associated with his effort to keep his honor alive even at the cost of live instead of being worried for bread and butter all the time.

Aathpeharchonsathgharibaadrahy din rain; jingharmendarmaahain in gharkaisa chain (p. 104) (Mother is a source of blessing; without mother a house is like a hell). Maa Mary phirbhimaa, maapukary (p. 147) (Even if a mother beats her child, a child still cries by calling their mother). Mothers are presented as the homemakers, so are highly respected in Mewati society.

PraayaGharkoeindhan (p. 117) (Daughters are a treasure of others’ houses). They are portrayed as guests and the treasure for outsiders; Beta kikhawai or bail kicharaikahin Na jaway (p. 92) (Virtual given to a son and the food given to a bull never ends in smoke). Sons are known as an investment that never get wasted. Sons are also given importance because it is considered that they will continue the generation of his father.

The proverbs of Mewati language speak volume of complementary gender differences in both males and females. Women are the supposed to be the rulers within four walls, while men are supposed to be responsible for generating finance and ensuring protection of their women.

4.3. Heterosexuality

According to the proverbs of Mewati language, we can discuss the themes in following two categories: heterosexual hostility and heterosexual intimacy.

4.3.1. Heterosexual hostility

ChorikituguzzBharkizubaanhai; zroorgulkhilao (p. 109) (This girl has a meter-long tongue, would commit an illicit act). Young girls who are talkative and opinionated are expected to commit immoral acts. A woman brings disgrace into the family through her charms. BulaouBadiBahuko jo Kheer main Khakmilaye. (p. 115) (do call the elder daughter in law who mixes ashes in the pudding). The burden of family honor is carried by the women, who are not allowed to take decisions of their own lives.

Per naaripainichurri (p. 84) a woman is like a sharp knife). The feminine aura is like a sharp knife that attracts men and leads them astray. Women are also portrayed as manipulative in nature because they possess the weapon of crocodile tears to easily befool a man. The women are often maligned for their explicit portrayal of beauty. Triyachalattar (p. 120) Seduction of Women). In the Mewati society, woman used her beauty to seduce other members of society. So, they are scolded and commented for getting ready and wearing ornaments in front of men. (p. 131) (Old mare with new leather strap). Aged women are deprived of the right of bejewl.

Aikbhainssaaribhainsan k keechlegawayhai (p. 107) (A muddy buffalo pollutes all the buffaloes; Aikmachlisarajal ay gandookardewayhai (p. 107) (A polluted fish can pollute the whole water). According to Mewati linguistic proverbs, a single obscene woman can spoil the whole community and be a source of all evil. One immodest woman can be the source for maligning and spoiling every woman.

The women with seductive powers are mocked at for years. NaniKhasamkarey or nawasoDandbharey (p. 152) (The grandmother marries and the humility is faced by the grandson). Even if a woman of the first generation commits a sexual crime, the male members of the third generations would be considered helpless despite their good characters. Margai Rand Khtai me mari (p. 148) (The illicit woman dies in pleasure). Women who are sexually explicated are not mourned.

Gharkinaaganpoojiyo (p. 119) (Worshipping the female serpent (wife) living in the house). Mother-in-law is considered as the nasty woman in Mewati society and she is compared with a snake to indicate her poisonous nature as in this proverb Saanpmaiaik seen; saas Mai do seen (p. 112) (There is one “s” in snake but two “s” in saas; Mother-in-law is more poisonous than a snake). Sootansoosoolibhali jo pal Mai nikalay jeep; soolisoosootanbori jo aadhumangay pee (p. 136) (The arrow is better than a co-wife, it kills you with a single attack; while a co-wife kills you in steps). A co-wife is also portrayed in a negative way in Mewati linguistic proverbs as co-wives are compared with knives and arrows.

Auratnahaiadawathai (p. 82) (She is not a lady but a hostility). Zurr, zameen or zurru; jhuggarurehayguhamaisha (p. 91) (Wealth, property, and women; there will always be squabbling). Women are deceptive and lead to destruction.

NaariMurdkijooti ay, toot gi too naipaa lain ga (p. 118) (A woman is like a man’s shoe; if it is broken, one can wear a new one). Thus, a wife equalizes to a sex entity that can be replaced once injured or used. Gainth ma zarrhai, tunarrhai (p. 137) (If you have money in your pocket, you will have a woman). Women are considered as sex objects who can be bought with money.

Mewati Proverbs indicate heterosexual hostility towards women in terms of pungent attitude, strict rules, and long-term stigmatization for the entire clan.

4.3.2. Heterosexual intimacy

In Mewati linguist proverbs, the women are romanticized in rather platonic way.Tu Allah kighaainhai (p. 111) (p.God’s child). The extent of women appreciation began with their innocence.Laajjorukagehnahovay (p. 150) (Modesty is the bracelet for a woman). The beauty of the woman can only be amplified with modesty. The proverbs describe women’ passion towards their beloved. RanjhaRanjhaKrdi vi way meinApayranjhahoyi (p. 120) (She forgot herself, wailing for her beloved). The loving female loses her identity in order to attain the highest level of affection.

The solution of every ailment of females is getting them married. Ulajh jay guTusulajh jay gu (p. 108) (She will gain sanity once married). The care towards family and children would keep her on the right path.Dulhadulhan mil gaye, pheekipareybaraat(p. 146) (Once the bride and groom are united, the party is over). Unification of the bride and groom is the ultimate goal of the society. Assimilation of marital relations brings prosperity and contentment. However, Akelarookhki koi chaainbhinabethy (p. 105) (Infertile Woman). The women who cannot not bear a child, or she is sexually in active for the husband is of no use.

Maakapaaman k neechyjannat ay (p. 147) (The Garden of Edenlies beneath the feet of mothers). The Paradise has been manifested as the lower entity in comparison of maternal love and care. Women are meant for beauty and physical appeal. Shakalkighadhi; nakhrashehzadinka (p. 100) (Having face like a genie, showing attitude like a princess). Women are objectified and dehumanized in Mewati linguistic proverbs if they do not fit in the standards of societal romance and attraction.Beta or ghorra, thaanpy he achaalgan(p. 92) (A son and a horse, always look first class when they raise their heads).They are viewed as a symbol of power, strength, respect, and pride. Sons and horses are equated in the same proverb to indicate the status and value given to them as well as to deliver the concept of strength and power associated with both of them. Apart from heterosexual hostility, multiple Mewati proverbs provide motifs of heterosexually intimate behavior of females in the society.

5. Discussion

The Mewati proverbs manifest drastic difference in treatment of both genders in all their categories and sub-categories (husband-wife, son-daughter and man-women). The level of respect for woman can clearly be observed through these proverbs. Women are disrespected and disregarde in various forms and relations, like those of wife and daughter. Varying from their comparison with animals to presentation as seducing beings to the ones who are just burden or liability to be cared for and protected by the men, women are rarely positively thought about. Their intelligence is always ignored, rather intelligent or iron-willed women are looked down upon as ill-mannered and bad-tempered. In Mewati language, the only respected and valued relation is that of mother, who are equated to heaven.

Linguistic analysis of Mewati proverbs proves that the language is clearly gender-ambivalent rather it is gender biased. Both genders are presented in entirely different environment supporting a well-known saying: “Men are from from Mars and women from Venus”. Women have been expected to be heterosexually benevolent and repressive towards men, while men are authoritatively heterosexually hostile and paternally dominant towards females. Women are subdued in every context.

This sort of ambivalence reflected through proverbs from Mewati language leads to gender inequality and exhibition of patriarchal trends in Mewati society. The controlling behavior of men leads to the permanent hostile sexism for females. The Mewati proverbs, thus inculcate the attitude of mistrust, negative ambivalence and inequality in the Mewati society.

Through the analysis of Mewati linguistic proverbs, it can be said that Mewati language has clearly demonstrates the ambivalent dichotomy between men and women through proverbs. Similar researches have also been conducted on Punjabi, Pukhtoon, Persian, Urdu and English language proverbs, and all of the studies done in local and foreign contexts exibit related findings about male glorification and female degradation.

6. Conclusion

The main object of this study is to challenge these construed stereotypes in Mewati society and patriarchal social order regarding gender. This research shows that proverbs from Mewati language play an important role in the gender-construction in Mewati society and language is used as a tool to establish asymmetrical and patriarchal trends in Mewati society. In proverbs from Mewati language, women are portrayed as weak, idiotic, unimportant, immoral, disloyal, dishonest and seductive creatures, whereas men are portrayed as brave, intelligent, honest valuable ones. Though men also have been criticized but they are arraigned for their negative qualities like being cowardliness and immorality. They are not considered to be embodiment of all negativity and evil.

The study of cultural and folk discourses plays important role to raising awareness among masses towards stereotypes and patriarchal trends in Mewati society, also to to challenge these socially constructed notions prevailing in Mewati society. Further research needs to be conducted to create awareness to avoid these stereotypes. The research is also an effort to preserve the language because of quick shift of Mewati speakers to Urdu and English languages. This may lead to language decline. So, further research should also be conducted on the proverbs from Mewati language in order to preserve both language and literature of the Mewati language.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Muhammad Ajmal

Muhammad Ajmal earned his PhD in English Language and Literature from International Islamic University Islamabad, Pakistan. He has been teaching at various universities for the last 15 years and currently working as an Associate Professor of Linguistics and Literature at Qurtuba University of Science and Information Technology Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan. He had secured Indigenous and International scholarships from Higher Education Commission of Pakistan and stayed at Universitat Heidelberg Germany as a visiting scholar. He presented his research paper at James Joyce Conference in Universitat Roma Tre, Italy. He is also member of Poetics and Linguistic Association (PALA), UK. He has published around 50 research articles in local and international journals indexed in Scopus & Web of Science. His research interests include Corpus Stylistics, Literary Stylistics, Text Linguistics, ELT and Narratology.