Traditional architectural mud huts in Africa: Forms, aesthetics, history and preservation in South-eastern Nigeria

Abstract

The article explores indigenous architectural mud huts in Africa. Based on research, it assessed forms, aesthetics, history, and designs enshrined in the huts. Centered in Igbo land, south-eastern Nigeria, the paper draws from the fact that in contemporary times, old living structures are fast being erased to make room for modern infrastructures which affects traditional. It argues that indigenous traditional mud huts, which bore a lot of memories and history of the people will disappear in the face of civilisation. Preserving and keeping records of these traditional mud huts, which once provided shelter and security becomes imperative. The author suggests that studying the aesthetic writings and drawings on the walls that harbour history and ideology will enable special enlightenment. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and secondary sources. The conclusion delved into the prerequisites of saving facts on the indigenous architectural mud huts that are fast going extinct.

Keywords:

• Traditional
• architectural
• mud huts
• aesthetics
• history
• preservation

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

The paper explores traditional architectural mud huts in Africa and their forms, aesthetics, history and preservation in South-eastern Nigeria. The work discovered that many cultural and historical values are attached to African indigenous mud huts. There are numerous drawings, arts, designs, writings, and motifs on the walls, which are still trapped in many rural communities across this region waiting to be discovered and studied. In this context, this research focused on examining the various forms, arts, history, designs and motifs, which exist in mud houses. The paper discovered that behind the wall drawings, arts, designs and writings are deep ideological and philosophical meanings of the people. It therefore, laid emphasis on the need for their collection, documentation, and preservation to enrich African history and knowledge. The paper is beneficial to knowledge as it points out the contributions of the indigenous structures in the lives of Africans then and now.

1. Introduction

A cursory glance across most African villages and even towns depicts the still-in-existence of traditional architectural structures, indigenous mud huts to be precise. These architectural structures show a principle of sustainability; and there are earth buildings of almost every architectural type in use by every economic and social class in both industrialized and non-industrialized world over the years (Rael, 2009; Sayigh, 2019). Historically, Africans have lived and developed their society by living in shelters that are not as sophisticated as what is obtainable across the continent at the moment. Adeshina et al. (2021, p. 143) believe that there is more to the buildings than just the need for shelter. Early human habitation in Africa was in a natural and serene environment as they made use of available materials around them to build comfortable shelters for the comfort and security of life from harsh weather and wild animals. Dwelling lifestyle is enshrined in culture and tradition. African history is, therefore, made up of everything that transpired in the African environment right from the earliest times. Traditional houses count as one of the primary cultural and historical existence of the people. Fundamental human needs are basically three and have been classified as shelter, food, and clothing. Traditional mud huts, apart from providing human shelter, also provided the needed shelter for the preservation of food, crops, and livestock. In the same vein, in the communities where men took the erecting of huts for others as a means of livelihood, the work provided them with income.

Nigeria has vast landmarks and multiple ethnic groups. Indigenous living huts made of mud still exist in various parts of the country but are more commonly found in rural communities across the nation. Indigenous huts had been and are still part of a greater part of the people, their environment, social and cultural life. These huts provide shelter and coolness to the inhabitants. Today, they are still being erected in many parts of Nigeria like in the northern and south-eastern parts of the country. It is also politically symbolic as some traditional rulers still dwell or have continued to maintain some of the traditional mud huts, which their forefathers built in commemoration of culture, tradition, and prowess.

More so, the aesthetic designs and drawings on the walls of these huts are historical, mystical, and philosophical. Shape and forms of the huts reflect the calibre of titled men and chiefs in a community. Dutton and Mann (1966, p. 221) buttressed the point that the “frieze symbols on the upper walls; relief carvings on the doors, seats, and chalkboard; and ‘furniture’ all depict and communicate spiritual, historical, and religious elements of the African culture and landscape.” Mbiti (1991, p. 24) assert that “African art expresses religious ideas in wood, stools, calabashes, stones, sticks, pots, handicrafts, domestic animals and human bodies and are also expressed in the form of masks and carvings on wood, ivory, and stone.” Within a traditional mud hut, the special hut called obi in Igbo cosmology is exceptionally powerful and with deep meanings as they reflect the power and position of the first man or eldest in a compound. Ndandani (2015, p. 23) notes that “mud wall builders are always on the lookout for their reputations, so that they are known as the best wall builders in the villages around and in today’s commercial language, they can be said to be jealously protecting their brand.” African women also have a role they play after men have erected the mud huts. In the words of Gerdes (2013, p. 99), “traditionally, in Sotho, once men have completed the building of their houses, their wives undertake the decoration; the walls are first neatly plastered with a mixture of mud and dung and often coloured with natural dyes.” When African culture is delineated from Western culture, African culture and aesthetics stand out to reflect class and core traditional values. Indigenous living structures in southeast Nigeria in the forms of living mud huts, together with their forms, aesthetics, and history reflect the way of life of the people. Signs and symbols were considered an integral part of life or of the ecosystem (the environment, cultural practices, atmosphere, religion, etc.) of some villages in Igbo land (Sander, 2013). Unnecessary aspersions on these unique arts and culture, a set of huge heritage sites, ought to be checked.

The combination of materials got from the natural environment for the building of the huts exhibits originality, quality, innovation, style, and taste. Levan (2019:14) agreed that “colonialism affected every country in Africa except Ethiopia, leaving legacies that varied substantially based on the imperial power.” Designs of mud huts vary according to the desire of the owner. They can be round, square or rectangle and the main materials for erecting them are mud, bamboo and water. Thus, looking at the values and aesthetics in these tangible structures across Africa, it is concluded that they are worthy to be examined and discussed plus the fact that they truly served a useful purpose in the lives of the people. The legacy that is attached to their humble beginnings has become part of their story.

In recent times, the speed with which tourism sites, local joints, and relaxation spots are erecting mud huts with thatch roofs is astonishing. Despite civilization and modern buildings, people still appreciate the worth, beauty, and naturalness that mud huts exhibits. In the words of Ellong and Chehab (2019, p. 9), “to limit the research on the traditional dwelling, often referred to as ‘hut’ specifically designating African housing, to remain within the current borders of African countries, would suggest that we accept the virginity of this continent before its sectioning by European colonization in 1885 in Berlin.” Pictures of the materials used in building mud huts are inserted into the body of the work. This paper identified the place and value of African indigenous architectural mud huts using southeast as a case study and expressed the need for closer study, documentation, and preservation of these works for future reference concerning the history of the people (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Map of southeast region of Nigeria. The states include Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo.

2. Literature review

History manifests itself in many forms including the houses and structures people live in in their traditional society. Indigenous living mud huts have influenced lives and families across the African continent since time immemorial. Fertis and Fertis (1998) in Historical evolution of infrastructure explored and studied the history behind infrastructure and its evolution in over 15,000 years. The duo discussed the gradual transition and transformation of societies as regards human living spaces. Looking back at ancient African civilization as it concerns human shelter and survival through the ages, Connah (2015) did an in-depth study in his book African civilizations: an archaeological perspective. Here, Connah examines the physical evidence for developing social complexity in Africa. He focused his research on archaeological research of urbanism and state formation as it concerns architecture and how development changes the environment through the construction of new structures. Mitias (1999) affirm in his work Architecture and civilization, that there are many fine works of architecture in generally unvisited locations. Each year more virgin areas are cleared into the communities for road constrictions and other modern structures as a sign of development thereby posing danger to the historical traditional structures that are also part of the culture and history of the people. Indigenous mud huts as living structures have been beneficial for African families through the ages as Gray and Gulliver (2013) tried to illustrate in The family estate in Africa: studies in the role of property in family structure and lineage continuity. They examined in detail the value and essence of huts for family shelters where everyone returns to at the end of the day. Mud huts are essential and affordable for all in southeast Nigeria for many years. Across states and communities, they still exist with facts worthy of being collected and preserved before being erased in the future by modernization. Hence, Falola (2001) in Culture and customs of Nigeria, examines Nigerian culture and how Nigerians lived. He discussed the people’s lifestyles and gave a general historical overview of the people of this nation. Similarly, Dmochowski (1990) examined Nigerian traditional architecture in the southeast in An introduction to Nigerian traditional architecture: South-Eastern Nigeria: the Igbo-speaking people. Dmochowski emphasized that globalization has restructured economic, political, and social relationships at the local level. He gave a detailed introductory account of traditional architectural huts which provided shelter over time for indigenes of this area. But then, Radoine (2017) noticed that very few local or international architects are trained to capture grassroots contextual elements. Elleh (2017) in Architecture and politics in Nigeria: the study of late twentieth-century enlightenment—inspired modernism at Abuja, 1900–2016, looks at the advantages and disadvantages of creating modern public structures using Abuja the Nigerian capital as the city of focus. The study examined how new states emerged with modern infrastructures in the postcolonial era from 1900 to 2016. Loew (1998) in his book, Modern architecture in historic cities: policy, planning and building in contemporary France, noticed the increase in popularity of contemporary architecture. Thus, in recent times, historians and scholars who understand the value of preserving historical structures and monuments have recognized the need for the preservation of vital historical structures of people. Locatelli and Nugent (2009) in African cities researched recent debates among scholars, politicians, aid workers, international donors, and organizations on the development and future of urbanization in the continent. Across the globe, many societies still cherish and preserved their traditional architecture made with local materials. Parcel (2012, p. 208) opine that only building elements that come directly from the primitive hut belong to architecture and the fine arts. Today, Japan and China still pride themselves in their distinct indigenous architectural structures despite civilization and modernization. In today’s world where there is a misunderstanding of where to draw a line between cultural heritage and modernization, prioritizing heritage cultures becomes imperative.

3. Methodology

This paper comes from our ethnographic fieldwork in southeast Nigeria between 2020 and 2021 in selected communities in Anambra and Enugu states. Many communities with historical attachments abound. Some selected and visited communities include Nkalagu, Abakaliki, Anam, Umerum, and Anaku. We gained some information using participant observation in these selected communities. The multi-sited ethnography propagated by Marcus (1995) was used in exploring the basics and also interviews on special historical wall writings called Nsibidi and motifs done on the walls within and outside the solid mud huts. We aim at observing the basic aspects of history withheld in these mud huts’ structures hidden for years in these communities unidentified as well as emphasize the need to visit and preserve the history and knowledge behind them. Onyejegbu (2014) emphasized that people’s history, geography, language, behaviour, and festivals all revolve around cultural heritage. To this end, we also used secondary data to define and assess the value of primary materials used for the building and drawings. The nature and texture of clay soil used in the making of these mud huts matter for its duration. In general, the forms and shapes of indigenous mud huts are determined by geographical location, landscape, purpose, and the climatic condition of the area. We interviewed some elders and residents in these huts to know the meaning of their wall writings using the Igbo language, which is the indigenous language of the people in southeast Nigeria. Preservation of the basic historical attachments to these structures is therefore a necessity. UNESCO (2009) observed that “cultural erosion has accordingly become an issue of increasing concern since numerous modes of life are being lost and many cultural forms and expressions are disappearing; there is a widespread sense that globalization is leading to pervasive cultural homogenization”.

4. Findings and discussions

4.1 Forms and ideology of architectural mud houses

Shapes and forms of traditional living huts in Africa are determined by landscape, geographical location, climatic condition, and socio-cultural background. African huts come in different shapes, and styles and are often art-inclined, what with the beautiful drawings and writings made on the walls. A particular type of soil called clay soil or earthenware forms the basic materials for moulding the walls of these buildings with the hands. A more sophisticated type of process of heating mud blocks makes mud huts more beautiful and long-lasting. In Igbo land, mud huts are commonly moulded in square, rectangular, and round forms. In the northern part of the country, such as Sokoto and Kano for instance, round huts are common, and some of them have flat roofs that are also made with mud due to the excessive heat and sun prevalent in the area. In the southeast, thatch and palm fronds form the basic materials for the construction of the roofs. The fences and entrance gates in these compounds are made with either thatch or palm fronds. Fences and gates enable one entrance into a living compound and safeguard the compound. Thus, from mud to thatch roofs, these materials used in the construction of traditional huts are not durable materials per se when compared with modern-day blocks and zinc. Yet, they were intermittently maintained by women and children, and they were able to provide shelter and protection from cold, sun and wild animals.

Most traditional huts are designed using local dye materials, such as the uli (a natural dye grown by a tree called uli). Decorative arts are uniquely part and parcel of the lives of the people. Igbo art and drawings either on the body or on the mud walls embody philosophy, ideology, and belief systems. It consists of tangible and intangible cultures. Women have the dexterity of using uli on themselves and on the wall for decoration. Nsibidi designs are common among people and can also be found on the walls. Symbolic motifs and designs on walls show the belief and status of the inhabitants of the society. The writing nsibidi, an ideographic script that contains major abstract drawings, thoughts, things, animals, etc., is distinct to the people and can hardly be explained by the ignorant.

Drawings on living mud huts can also be inspired, but most of the time, they comprise daily objects found in the environments such as lizards, fowls, the sun, the moon, palm trees, and so on. Symbols drawn are often for a purpose and a reminder of what a thing stands for in their lives. The designing can be done by the man of the house or the wife (wives). In most cases, common drawings are done by women except deep spiritual drawings. Udechukwu (1990, p. 15) also noticed that “wall paintings were more of a community art project which involved women from different parts of the community as it concerns shrines.” Again, the duty of the women and children involves periodic maintenance of the mud floor and internal walls to shine and exhibit coolness. This act includes re-plastering with mud and water. Major cracks and repairs involving the outside walls or roofs are works for the men (Figure 2).

Figure 2. a) living mud hut with thatch roof and (b) a fence made with thatch to protect the compound.

In a typical traditional setting, each living compound has a lively setting whereby many huts and trees adorn the compound. The man of the house has his own hut and obi, a special spacious hut, located at strategic points in the compound. The obi is where he receives visitors and holds meetings with the kindred called umunna. Other sparsely spaced huts in the compound belong to the wife (or wives) and children. There is usually another hut that serves as the kitchen and store room at the corner of the compound. At the far end of the compound are found huts for livestock, such as goats and chickens. Wives are not expected to live in the same hut as their husbands. Despite residing in individual huts, communal living exists in these local settings. Grown-up sons that are ready to get married often have their own huts erected for them with the help of their male friends often in a new plot of land called ani obi, the inherited land, gifted to him by his father and the umunna at the attainment of manhood. In the southeastern part of Nigeria, life and living reflect history and continuity to a great extent. Male superiority and dominance prevail in a compound, hence men are seen as heads of families. According to Okoh (2012, p. 16)

In traditional Igbo clans, wives live in separate huts. Amongst the traditional Igbo, a man first of all sets up his homestead before he marries. The need for social control and leadership quality stands out. This entails the putting up of two huts, one for himself and the other for his wife

It is a common scenario of life in these communities to have reclining chairs for relaxation outside the hut or under a tree. Village life with huts and trees is usually very peaceful and with little property to worry abound. In a larger community setting, there are also huts for masquerade initiation cults which women are not supposed to enter. Many other secret organizations or skills are learned in concealed environments. As Hayden (2018, p. 10) observed, “there are varying degrees of ritual knowledge that are involved in membership in different societies.”

4.2 Traditional living huts—history and lifestyle

History has stated that human beings come from Africa and that early men began life here and made use of the materials and food around them to survive. According to Buck and Jones (2004, p. 2), “human life began in Africa; not only did human life begin in Africa but the earliest structures of civilization emerged there.” The necessity for African indigenous huts is characterized by one of the human primary basic needs which is shelter as noted earlier. The early erection of living houses were not as sophisticated as they are today. Observing this, Basden (1966, p. 315), affirms that “in the early years of birth occupation, Europeans residing in the interior were accustoms to dwell in houses built with clay walls and thatch roofs of the type described.” Falola and Heaton (2008, p. 17) are of the opinion that “the history of social interaction in this region, however, is certainly not meaningless or non-existent before the consolidation of the modern state of Nigeria.” In the centuries preceding the nineteenth-century Nigeria, there were no sophisticated buildings in existence that even the various categories of foreigners who came for different reasons at different periods in the annals of the history of the nation resided in locally made houses as well. Colonial masters in the country later started using wood, and other materials gotten from the environment to erect administrative, religious, and residential buildings.

Evidence of a storey building built with mud still exists at Onitsha-Ado kingdom, precisely along Awka road at Nzegwu quarters. The walls of this building were all perforated with thousands of bullets as a result of the attacks on the building received during the Nigerian-Biafra Civil War of 1967 to 1970. At Calabar is also located a storey building that was made with wood which was formerly a colonial residential building of the Europeans but now conserved and renamed the National Museum Calabar. Aside Africa, other communities of the world have had similar experiences of establishing early traditional abodes followed by the gradual transformation and evolvement from remote to sophisticated buildings of today. In Europe, a resounding change in art and architecture transpired around the fourteenth century and is popularly called the renaissance period. The Renaissance, Roman art, Expressionism and Classical art are some of the historical ages in world history when different parts of the world experienced reflective changes especially in the world of art. With civilization came tremendous changes all over the world. New cities and modern buildings becomes the new phenomenon and traditional houses in these areas began to fade out. Indigenous houses have the connotation of culture and traditional beliefs. Hence, art, culture, and spirituality feature outstandingly in most of what the Igbo of southeast Nigeria do. The Igbo traditional values are expressed in the Igbo traditional cultural materials (Aligwekwe, 2008).

Mud and clay soil come naturally in different forms. The richness is in the texture of the soil. Hence, clay is also used for pottery making. Mud huts and pottery works often have designs on them that reflect African culture and history. From primary artistic expressionisms, come mighty innovations and renovations that gave birth to modern art. Indigenous technology, when modified, becomes professional. Foreign and sophisticated architectural houses in the 21^st century have expanded, while huts are fast wearing off in various parts of Africa. Across Nigeria, old historical houses, especially those built or inhabited by the colonial masters in the nineteenth century, are now being greatly appreciated. The National Museum Calabar, as mentioned earlier, was formally a colonial official residence. Nigeria has different terrain and weather dispensation. For this reason, communities living very close to the river have a type of house naturally made with stilts and thatch and fishing is often their fundamental means of livelihood.

4.3 Aesthetics and value of traditional huts

A traditional scenario whereby a compound is adorned with indigenous architectural mud huts, with wall designs and surrounded with various types of trees (often economic trees) especially palm trees, has a distinct aura of peace, tranquillity, and beauty. Mud used in erecting indigenous architectural houses is a gift of nature. It can be used to mould many things aside from huts. Mud huts, whether square, rectangle or round reflects traditional naturalness and creativity. In most cases, the inside are decorated with hanging horns and local beads. Aside from mud huts, African pottery is varied as they come in different forms like vases, pots, bowls and many more. The drawings on the body of these artworks are usually stylish and aesthetic in nature. Drawings on the body of walls, pottery or human skin are first done to beautify; but underlying the beautification, in most cases, there are deep philosophical meanings. The designs are purposefully artistic. Adding additional writings or paintings on the walls enhances the culture and heritage of the people. Materials for edifying these works are easily available in the surrounding. While body designs using uli may not be too easy to rinse off, the wall designs are also durable but with time can fade from rain and sun.

Art, culture and spirituality stand out in all that the people of the southeast do. Aside the external aesthetic designs on the body of mud walls, other forms of designs and attachments are seen within the huts as wished by the owner. While the external wall decorations are made to give beauty to outsiders, internal hangings and drawings are often personal to the person living inside them. He selectively hangs objects that he found peaceful and worthy to grace his living room. Mud huts often have a window and a door to encourage ventilation. They are also spaced apart but arranged communally so that each person sees the entrance door of the other family member in the next hut. A detailed perception of the basic geometric signs commonly seen and drawn on completed residence mud huts in southeast Nigeria is observed by (Onwuakpa, 2016, p. 352):

There are basic geometric shapes that appear in several variations used as both decorative and symbolic motifs. Architectural shapes - dot, curvilinear line, triangle, rectangle, double triangle, circle, crescents, and their extensions in concentric coils derived from snake coils. There are also motifs on royal paraphernalia such as crowns, beads, ivory tusks, swords, umbrellas, stools, and staffs, which are symbols of authority. Man-made objects and plant life are not left out as numerous motifs are derived from them including ogene (gong), ite mmili (water pot), amala (paddle), aziza (broom), jigida (beads), odu nni (pestle), abuba akpu (cassava leaf), oke osisi (big tree), ukpaka (oil bean seed) and akuriko ji(yam tendrils)

Traditional mud huts are strong and have the capacity to resist strong winds. Nowadays, they are fast being eroded and replaced with modern houses across Africa. Yet, tourist spots and museums are still erecting them to give the people a sense of traditional life, relaxation, and coolness that is attached to indigenous mud huts. In other words, traditional architectural structures across the nation are attracting the attention of tourists, archaeologists, and historians. Museums are not left out in the appreciation of the beauty of these huts as many museums across the nation have mud huts in their compounds where they sell indigenous foods, accessories, and handicrafts. Despite the need to upgrade to modern infrastructures which signifies development, preservation of culture and identity loaded in these indigenous huts still matter (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Mud huts in recreational centers in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria.

4.4 Availability of materials for mud huts

Tribes and communities, nature, and weather temperature prevalent may determine design and shape. Materials for the making of mud huts are always readily available and never bought, especially for the indigenes. These materials include water, mud, thatch, sticks, bamboo, and palm fronds. Mud huts can be rectangular, square, or round in shape. To get the right texture of mud, the ground must be dug very deep to get fresh and pure red mud. This type is the best quality that will gum together when kneaded. They are thereafter sieved of every dirt and mixed with little water and moulded gradually around the marked-out foundation to form a mud hut. Mud blocks can also be painstakingly moulded of the same size and fired or sun-dried in the open air and placed as modern blocks on top of each balanced mud to make more solid and longer-lasting huts. Sticks, stones, and mud often form a solid foundation. The bamboo in the middle forms the stronghold where the mud is plastered on. The floor is robbed by women and children to make it look nice and bring out a cooling effect. The roof can be specially made with palm fronds or thatch. Civilization is fast replacing these with the zinc roof. In the midst of modernization of the age, there are different perceptions for those that are still living in indigenous architectural huts. Lamprakos (2015, p. 16) mentioned that: See Figure 4.

Attitudes toward the inhabitants of old cities-among both Western and native professionals - seem to oscillate between two poles. Inhabitants may be seen as representatives of a traditional way of life, uncorrupted by modernization; as such, they bear witness to an ’‘authentic’’ culture that has been lost or is in the process of disappearing.

Figure 4. Major raw materials for building mud huts are red mud and bamboo.

4.5 Preservation of indigenous mud structures

Within the past 40 years, the majority of communities across Nigeria have undergone tremendous change in infrastructural development. Lewcock (1984, p. 31) observed that “the clash between the aims of cultural preservation and the desire for modernization has become a serious issue in light of the steadily diminishing residues of heritage, particularly in urban areas, and an increasing rejection of traditional values by many classes of society.” The demolition policies and activities indulged in by different governments across major towns are enormous and often to the chagrin of the poor and the average. Housing and living standards have therefore improved. Yet, countries differ and have distinct cultural outlooks, which they are known for. African indigenous huts, which come in different forms, shapes and sizes, have a unique attachment to African identity and are a major part of their cultural heritage.

In Nigeria, cultural heritage is in the form of tangible objects and intangible objects. A lot of history, experiences, and attachment have undergone into these traditional mud huts. Hence, the need to preserve some of them and possibly documents them digitally, on paper, and physically by the conservation and preservation bodies. Just like oral tradition continues to be cherished as a vital part of African tradition that boosted its history, traditional huts have provided a secure living for the majority of Africans/Nigerians. Original African folktales, fables, and lullabies have transpired in these warm huts, where closely knitted relatives assemble every evening to share their life events with grandmothers and fathers, telling their life history to the entire families. The works of the archaeologists still remain relevant in the 21^st century as they unearth the buried histories of the people. Yet, the preservation of physically present tangible structures like the mud huts remains relevant. Most mud structures as seen in the northern part of Nigeria, such as fences and palaces, are far stronger and longer lasting than ordinary mud houses and those made with stilts. The preservation, documentation, and study of these local architectural huts, together with the designs and motifs on them are fundamental as they are a historical part of African heritage.

People living in communities where traditional living huts are still prevalent are more deeply involved in culture and tradition than those living in urban cities. They tend to observe ceremonies, festivals, and rituals and appreciate other tangible cultural heritage than those in developed cities with modern buildings and facilities. More so, inside these remaining huts and surroundings, can still be found historical objects such as staff of office, title stools, cowries, potsherd, pottery (pots, cups, bowls), wooden plates and spoons, mortars, and pestles unlike in the modern buildings where the porcelain and breakable plates, electric blenders and grinders are prevalent.

It is a fact that if government decisions/policies do not erase indigenous mud huts, which may be termed archaic and old-fashioned, to pave way for sophisticated modern infrastructures, natural disasters, such as wind and flood have the capacity to destroy them. Thus, to preserve these, government and conservation bodies in Nigeria and abroad needs to take care of these remaining strictures for heritage and historical purposes. In recent years, the Nigerian Nollywood film industry is presently preserving and showcasing these rural mud huts in the southeast by using them to shoot indigenous movies. The existence of the Museum of Traditional Nigerian Architecture (MOTNA)–at the Jos Museum—established in 1952 by Bernard Fagg, who was an archaeologist is useful in this regard. The museum has a set of traditional architectural structures that exhibits and preserves Nigerian history and culture. Similarly, the University of Nigeria Archaeological Museum Nsukka also preserves indigenous mud huts in its museum compound. More so, restaurants and recreational centres are fast-erecting these mud huts to attract customers who wish to have the feeling of a cultural environment.

These renewed interests of the people in mud huts and natural environments depict people’s love for the natural environment, their roots, and history. Davidson and Wibberley (1977, p. 1) expressed that “the country-side has a special place in the minds of most people, whether or not they live in it; rural life harbours activities and values, which are revered, traditions which are seen to be quite alien to the impertinence and frivolity of urban living.” With these, it becomes imperative that individuals, governments, and non-governmental organizations should preserve, conserve and protect the remaining structures across the country. The preservation and documentation of these are basic for the heritage history of Africa. The essence for emphasizing on the preservation of mud huts in Nigeria is because it is affordable to the people as well as retains basic historical elements and journey of the people overtime. Secondly, despite the comfort of modern buildings, some people still prefer the huts because it is economical, cool and traditional. Ibimilua and Ibitoye (2015) note that government policies in Nigeria aim towards solving housing problems. In recent times, some people are using the technique of plastering the body of the mud huts with cement to prevent rain water washing the mud off.

4.6 Aesthetic designs, motifs, and symbols in Igbo cosmology

The beauty of any society is in its heritage and cultural history. Igbo of southeast Nigeria recognizes and appreciates objects, symbols, motifs and designs. Despite the spirituality and philosophy attached to these symbols or drawings, they also have aesthetic values. Thus, the human face, which may have ichi marks that signifies the Igbo race and or body that is painted with uli paint harbour deep meanings. Mura (2015, p. 292) opined that “the original intention of an African designer when he depicts a motif or designs his work is not to decorate, but to unleash the idea at the back of his mind.” Vansina (2013, p. 116) is also of the opinion that “decoration art is universal and all African cultures used it from the rim of potteries.” Describing the material culture of these race, Chuku (2005, p. 13) reiterated that “the Igbo material culture such as architectural structures and designs, wall and body paintings, household equipment, agricultural implements, other tools, ornaments, and ritual objects have helped in recovering the history of the Igbo.”

Indigenous living mud huts have great architectural value even as it contributes to the heritage identity of the African people. In the pre-colonial era, all native African societies once lived in locally made houses before civilization introduced modern living structures. Ornamentations, objects, and wall drawings, such as animal horns adorn the interior walls of huts and, are most commonly seen in the kings’ palaces. Across the world, China and Japan still maintain their traditional system of houses and their writing is still steadfast. To these people, their writing method and wall patterns remain sacrosanct despite the presence of civilization. The cultural heritage of a people is verified by their traditional distinct heritage symbols, houses and writings. International organizations such as UNESCO have recognized the value in the tangible and intangible cultural heritage of the African people and preaches the value of preserving these for future generations (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Aesthetic designs on mud walls and traditional door panels have symbolic meanings.

Note: (Credit: UNN museums)

African objects such as adire tie-and-dye clothing, potteries, and woods have beautiful designs that serve as finishing works to beautify handicrafts. In the northern part of the country, clothes bear marks of culture, while many old native buildings bear drawings that tell the story of the people of this area. Art is therefore expressed in many forms and consciously or unconsciously, it shows that the people are art-inclined when they display cultural and artistic traits. Those who still build and reside in indigenous mud huts deserve respect. Despite the age of modernity, mud huts remain the only affordable houses for many people. For this reason, it is wrong to view them as primitive and archaic. There is usually no town planning to determine the organization of the built huts in rural communities; hence, they are found scattered unprofessionally across villages. In comparison, most modern building lacks the historic attachment, which only mud huts represent—the geometric drawings and cultural symbols (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Designs in or outside walls hold deep philosophical meaning.

4.7 Challenges in the conservation of mud houses

The continual alteration of the environment for new roads, hospitals, schools and ultra-modern is the trend. Indigenous architectural mud huts are seen as archaic and unsophisticated and therefore, it takes little or nothing for the government to demolish them. Development is fast encroaching into the villages and towns across the southeast and the rest of the Nigerian regions and government policies have no boundaries. Thus, aside from mud huts, other cultural objects and places, such as shrines and cultural objects are being destroyed because of the obnoxious view of the “learned world”. There is a wilful breakdown of huts to replace the local building with block houses. Aluminium zincs and corrugated sheets now feature more in modern buildings as opposed to thatch roofs. In the course of man’s long history in Africa, many changes have occurred in many ways of living and the life of man change gradually from being fairly simple to becoming more and more complex as noted by Mbiti (1991).

Conflicts and terrorist acts across the country are major devastating factors in the erosion of mud huts and other historical structures across Nigerian communities. The wilful destruction of lives and properties and arson is fast wiping away not only residential areas in rural communities but lives and properties as well. There is more focus of the government on politics, infrastructural development projects, and technological advancement but little attention is paid to the facts that make up the natural environment and restores history in contemporary Nigeria. The inability to look in-depth and see the value in some local monuments and structures and subsequently draw a line between modern facilities and the basics that form history remains a major problem that is fast wiping away cultural heritage in southeast Nigeria. Grinker et al. (2010, p. 9) observed that little or no attention was paid to indigenous African views of the past or to the role Africans played in shaping global developments, processes, and structures. The traditional writings and symbols on the walls of mud huts are an important part of cultural heritage. Unfortunately, with modernization, all these are being forgotten and hardly practiced.

The teachings, persuasion, and visions of the postmodernist religionists in recent times are detrimental to the cultural heritage of the people as they oppose almost everything traditional. Rio et al. (2017, p. 12) emphasized that “Pentecostalism problematizes relativism and translation.” Similarly, United Nations Settlements Programme (2003), (2003:5) observed that the 20^th century was a time of great change and the greatest of those changes was in the numbers of people on the globe and where they lived. Indigenous mud houses in southeast Nigeria may be seen as old-fashioned and a thing of the past, but they hold memories and history of the people. They are major and primarily repositories of cultural messages.

In line with these challenges are inconsiderable bush burnings, which destroy huts, thatch, and grasses used in completing indigenous mud huts. Major sleeping materials within these huts include mats and bamboo beds and are often works of the craftsmen. Bamboo sticks and other forms of sticks that serve as an internal stronghold in mud huts are also in danger during bush burning. Similarly, when bush burning destroys bamboo materials, it affects local craftsmen who earn their livelihood through the erection of mud huts and thatch roofs. This is why the museums, traditional recreational centres, and the Nigerian film industry should be applauded for their interest in the preservation of some of these indigenous mud huts across Igbo land (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Closely knitted mud hut groups with open spaces where children play.

Note: Image credit: UNN museums

5. Summary and conclusion

This work discovered that indigenous architectural mud structures are fast phasing out and needs proper documentation. Some of them hold histories and secrets of existence in pre-colonial and postcolonial southeast Nigeria. The paper demonstrated that African indigenous architectural mud huts, if well preserved, stand the chance of revealing more hidden historical facts as some of them that are still located in interior villages have cultural writings, symbols, and objects that can be studied. So far, the speed by which technological and infrastructural development is cutting across rural villages across the nation is worrisome. However, the recent interest and re-building of mud huts in entertainment spots, museums, and bush bars to attract tourists across the country is encouraging as it depicts that people still crave culture and tradition. For this reason, there is a need for the government to take an interest in the value of these indigenous huts and ensure that they are documented for future reference. Traditional knowledge hidden in the designs and writings on mud walls, both exterior and interior, as well as the tangible historical objects in them is priceless. Similarly, the economic value of these huts in museums and tourist centres is important to the nation. It will add to knowledge when the major materials used in erecting indigenous mud huts, such as mud, thatch, palm fronds, and uli colours for designing, are given more attention and their value appreciated. The study and proper documentation of the mystical and symbolic designs in traditional palaces and shrines in Igbo land will reveal more insightful histories of the Igbo of southeast Nigeria just like oral tradition assisted majorly in recovering and reconstructing the history of the people when there were little records to do that.

There is no gainsaying the fact that conflicts and agitations across the country are fast ruining and destroying historical architectural structures and records. Emphasis and practice of peace and stability in the society will enhance the development and preservation of tangible cultural heritage. Culture custodians located in each community and even tourism agencies ought to pay more attention to the effect of crisis and conflict management across the country. The National Commission for Museums and Monuments, a body whose responsibility is taking care of heritage conservation in the country must pay more attention to these indigenous historical huts and preserve a number of them for future reference. In the same vein, the postmodernist activities against old structures, shrines and cultural objects, which they see as possessing certain evil forces ought to seize. Peel (2015, p. 2) pointed out that “conversion was never a narrowly religious process, for it went with the adoption of a whole complex of values: education as a key to personal and communal advancement, progress, prosperity, and modernity.” Putting the conservation of African early abodes, such as the indigenous living huts in mind will boost cultural heritage, add to knowledge about how people managed the resources found in their environment to erect living structures; add to a branch of architectural studies in schools, boost tourism ventures, illustrate the aesthetic value in local handicrafts, and speaks volume about the ideology and philosophy behind symbols and geometric symbols.

Acknowledgments

We profusely thank and acknowledge the efforts of all the field officers and students that went on fieldwork with us to gather the necessary data for this work. We acknowledge the patience and trust of all the villagers who intimated with us about their lives and experiences in mud huts.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu

Dr, Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu is a Research Fellow and Lecturer in the Insitute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. She is interested in promoting African history, culture and tradition. Dr. Maureen has published many journals in both local and international journals.

Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo

Dr. Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo is a Senior Lecruer in the Department of History and International Studies, University of, Nigeria, Nsukka.. He has published many journals locally and internationally.

Ifeyinwa David-Ojukwu

Ifeyinwa David-Ojukwu is a Lecturer in the Use of English Unit, School of General Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. She has attended many conferences and published many journals.