Mongolian wrestling title (tsol): A symbol of the struggle for Mongolian independence (Seventeenth-Nineteenth Centuries)

Abstract

One of the main features of Mongolian national wrestling is the tradition of awarding titles (tsol) to successful wrestlers at the Naadam Festival. It is interesting to know why Mongolians have been awarding various titles to their wrestlers since the seventeenth century. These historical periods were the years when Mongolians were actively fighting for independence in many fields (politics, religion, culture, etc.). The tradition of awarding titles to Mongolian wrestlers symbolizes the struggle for independence. This tradition has become a celebration of the success of modern Mongolian wrestlers. Currently, Mongolian wrestlers are awarded six titles (nachin, khartsaga, zaan, garuda, arslan, avarga) at the national Naadam Festival. Mongolian wrestling is not just a sport based on sportsmanship and competition for victory. From the history of the development of Mongolian wrestling and its components, it is possible to see the peculiarities of the Mongolian mentality, the socio-political situation, the cultural heritage, and the aspirations of the people. Mongolian wrestling tsol (titles) and chimeg (additional narratives that highlight titles) are some of the key elements that can clearly indicate such a feature.

Keywords:

• Mongolian wrestling
• bukh
• symbolism
• wrestling title
• naadam festival

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

The Mongolian national wrestling is richer in symbolic meaning than the world wrestling (Greco-Roman, freestyle, judo, etc.). National wrestling is one of the cultural values, which has its own name and reward system and has a strong influence on the identity of the Mongolian nation. Therefore, the article explains the symbolic meaning of the name of Mongolian wrestling, its historical development, the rules in force, and the reason why it was fully formed in the difficult socio-political times of the Mongols. Reading the article, one can see from one angle how the symbolic system of a person is formed, which is not established only by recognizing the symbols of the Mongolian wrestling title.

1. Introduction: Studying Mongolian wrestling titles based on the view of symbolism

Mongolian wrestling is a cultural treasure (Borjigin Tsogt & Batmunkh Buyandelger, 2012, p. 11) created by the Mongols and passed down from generation to generation. Thus, Mongolian wrestling has symbolically preserved the behavior, appearance, movements, and terms of animals and beasts, which are the symbolic values of the Mongolian nation. For example, symbolizing ferocious beasts and wings is more common in Mongolian wrestling rituals and titles, and in Inner Mongolia, it is often used in wrestling movements (Rikido, 2009). These Mongolian characters are the expression of “metalanguage” (Dulam, 1999). The national festival and the symbol of Mongolian wrestling in its composition was revered as one of the most precious things of the nation (Khand, 1979, p. 3).

The theory of Cassirer. E (Cassirer, 2021) is one of the main theoretical concepts for studying the title system of Mongolian wrestling from the view of symbolism. According to this concept, man is a “symbolic animal” and can create “cultural facts” by linking systems of signs and expressions between himself and the rest of the world. The symbol of the name of Mongolian wrestling is an expression of thought (Ausdrucksfunktion), which formulates the events taking place in the world around us, at the level of feelings and emotions. Therefore, in the second part of the article, we clarified the meaning of the title system of Mongolian wrestling. The symbolic representational meaning is first formed by the mythological content, gradually separates from this content, and reinterprets it, forming a more stable system capable of being preserved in cultural and socio-political changes (Darstellungsfunktion). In the third and fourth part of the article, we introduce how culture and socio-political changes in Mongolia influenced the development of wrestling title. The symbolic system of Mongolian wrestling titles was formed for the first time during the ancient Mongolian dynasties. However, since the 17th century, due to external military and political violence, it has turned into a current culture that represents and formulates real expressions with hidden meanings. Here, on the one hand, the symbol is formulated not only as a single variant but also as a synthetic variant that takes into account different views and variable characteristics of different situations. The difference between the reality of the Mongolian struggle and the symbolic meaning expressed in the title, reflecting the above approach to development, led to the impossibility of a direct empirical assessment. Therefore, the symbolic meaning of the title for Mongolian wrestler, following the social and political conditions of Mongolia at that time, needs to be investigated in a historical and logical sequence. We expressed this content in the fifth part of the article, explaining the important function (Bedeutungsfunktion) of the struggle for independence, most clearly expressed in the name of the Mongolian wrestling title.

2. Mongolian wrestling title: Analyzing the meaning of the symbolic system

One of the distinguishing features of Mongolian wrestling from the internationally popular types of wrestling is that it awards titles with names associated with traditional culture, historical processes, and Mongolian mentality. Researchers (Mikkola, 2019, p. 27; Rhode, 2009, p. 222; Shagdargochoo, 1960) understand the title of Mongolian wrestling better in the modern version, which is based only on the achievements of wrestlers, so they do not go beyond summarizing the titles and corresponding achievements.An interesting conclusion can be drawn from the study of the title of Mongolian wrestling and its accompanying chimeg (additional narratives that highlight titles) on the impact of historical traditions and associated socio-political and cultural changes.First of all, it is worthwhile to get acquainted with the current title system that is officially used in Mongolia. There are six wrestling titles which are nachin (common kestrel or falco tinnunculus), khartsaga (hawk), zaan (elephant), garuda (mythical bird), arslan (lion), and avarga (champion or giant). These titles are given to the wrestlers only at the Naadam Festival which is a Mongolian national holiday celeberated between the 11^th to 15^th of July each year. The Naadam Festival is organized according to the hierarchy of Mongolian administrative units at three different levels: state, aimag (province), and soum (the smallest administrative units of the province), and awards wrestlers at different levels. The number of wrestlers is different in state and local level Naadams. For instance, usually 512 or 1024 wrestlers participate in state Naadam whereas 256 wrestlers participate at aimag Naadam and 128 wrestlers participate in soum Naadam. Wrestlers compete one-on-one in traditional Mongolian wrestling and one who defeated are eliminated in each round which is called “davaa” in Mongolian. At the State (national) Naadam Festival, a wrestler who wins five rounds is proclaimed a nachin¹ of the state. It is called nachin of aimag and nachin of soum in accordance with the different levels of Naadam Festival. Wrestlers who win six consecutive bouts/rounds will be awarded the title of khartsaga, and wrestlers who win seven consecutive bouts/rounds will be awarded the title of zaan. Wrestlers who win eight rounds in a row will be awarded the title of garuda at the State Naadam Festival. There is a rule that wrestler who wins nine rounds at the State Naadam Festival, will be awarded the title of arslan of the state. And wrestler who wins ten consecutive rounds, or nine consecutive rounds in two different year at the state Naadam Festival, will be awarded the title of avarga (Law on the National Naadam Festival of Mongolia, 2003). Different levels of titles are awarded at at the aimag and soum Naadam festival. Same as the state Naadam, wrestler who wins five rounds is called nachin of aimag and nachin of soum. Depending on the number of wrestlers competing in the Naadam Festival of soum (usually 128 wrestlers), the highest title is zaan of the soum. Wrestlers who win eight rounds in a row at the aimag Naadam will be awarded the title of arslan of aimag. There are no higher titles than arslan of aimag, as 256 wrestlers compete at the Naadam Festival in the aimag.

In 1924, for the first time in the last 100 years, the title of Mongolian wrestling was regulated by rules (Regulations on the Three Men’s Games of the People’s Republic of Mongolia, 1924, p. 12). However, the first rule approved by the government has not been implemented. Because it was very different from the tradition of Mongolian wrestling titles. For instance, two people with the same achievements are awarded different titles did not meet the actual requirements for evaluating the success of the sport. In addition, the rules changed the Mongolian tradition of awarding titles to wrestlers who win five rounds at the Naadam Festival, and begin awarding titles to wrestlers who win over six rounds. This may have been due to the ultra-revolutionary ideology that was influential among some sections of the Mongols at the time. Subsequently, in 1934 (Get Acquainted with the Wrestling Rules of the Naadam Festival, 1934, pp. 1–3), 1961 (Byambaa, Notes on Mongolian Wrestling in Historical Sources, 2015, pp. 96–100), 1969 (Adishaa & Erentei, 2005, pp. 30–34), 1981 (Resolution of the Wrestling Commission of the 60th Anniversary of the Mongolian People’s Revolution, (1981), 1988 (Rules of National Wrestling of the People’s Republic of Mongolia, 1988) and 1990 (Byambaa, Notes on Mongolian Wrestling in Historical Sources, 2015, pp. 115–120), the Mongolian national wrestling titles were frequently changed in terms of rules. However, eventually in 2003, the titles were revised and renewed by adding some new titles, and the newly established rules became law which is still in effect these days. Based on the Mongolian National Archives and other historical sources, the wrestlers who were awarded state titles since the 18^th century have been re-identified through the efforts of researchers (Bat-Ochir, Three Competitions for Men 1875–1908 (Badarguult Turiin Eriin Gurvan Naadam), 2000); (Gookhuu, 2003); (Mongolian Wrestlers with the Title Khartsaga (Hawk), (2005); (Mongolian Wrestlers with the Titles, 2013). These works are important impetus for the scientific study of Mongolian wrestling titles. However, there is a tendency among Mongolians to pass on the history of wrestling in the form of oral histories, and these mythological narratives are often used in most books on Mongolian wrestling.

If title of wrestlers was successful, meaning that the wrestler is given a “title”, in the former year of Naadam Festival, but did not achieve the same accomplishment in the next year’s, those wrestlers are given “chimeg” which is an additional narratives that is not considered as title but highlights the given title. Although Mongolian wrestlers had been using chimeg since the eighteenth century, until 1969, the rules of these times wrestling did not officially state the specific name of the chimeg - related with its suitable title—to be given to wrestlers. Starting with 1969, the rules stated that chimeg should be ranked in order to be given to different titles on the basis of their rankis. For example (Adishaa & Erentei, 2005, pp. 30–34), wrestlers with nachin and zaan titles have chimeg such as usukh ider (can improve in the future), ulam urnukh (success will spread), urnun delgerekh (spread of power), tsog nemekh (increase in splendor), tsogt ider (splendor is beautiful), unen khuchit (truly powerful) and khuurinan shuugigch (fast moving) that describes their future success. The avarga wrestlers, on the other hand, receive chimeg with words such as manlain bayasgalant (leading wrestler), unud bayasgalant (always happy), bukhnee duursgalt (remembered by all), and ulemj badrakh (make great strides). This tradition was changed little, that its main content has never been abandoned.

Mongolian national wrestling tsol and chimeg are a cultural element that perfectly combines the expression of sporting success and the heritage of traditional folklore. The title of Mongolian wrestling is expressed by the name of an animal or a real thing, while the chimeg makes it clear and meaningful by embellishing it with a story of one to six words (Buyandelger, Philosopical Analyze of the Mongolian Wrestling, 2003, pp. 94–95). The exact number of chimeg in Mongolian wrestling has not been determined, but it is currently estimated to be around 120 (Erdene, 1992, p. 24); (Buyandelger, Philosopical Analyze of the Mongolian Wrestling, 2003, pp. 94–95). In terms of meaning, there are nine symbols of strength, thirty-one symbols of human behavior, fourteen symbols of physical character, thirty-nine symbols of praise, twenty-three symbols of future success, and four symbols of greatness. Mongolian wrestling has developed (Bayar, 1993., pp. 4–6); (Buyandelger, History of Mongolian Wrestling, 2017, pp. 6–7) into three major currents (Khalkha, Inner Mongolia, and Oirat), with only Khalkha wrestling titles and chimeg (Nyam-Osor, 1964). Therefore, in terms of historical development, it is concluded that the title and chimeg were formed after the branching of the Khalkha wrestling.

3. Origin of Mongolian wrestling titles: memories of powerful states

According to the history of the rapid development of Mongolian wrestling from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries, the title of wrestling was not widespread at that time (Buyandelger & Dalanbayar, Mongolian Wrestling (Bukh) During the Twelfth-Fourteenth Centuries, (2021). 38, no. 9, pp. 988–1007), yet it was used with the emphasis on “country’s wrestler (ulus-un bukh or boke)”, which is recorded in historical sources (The Secret History of the Mongols, 2008, p. 69). Based on this note, let’s take a closer look at the historical tradition of “bukh or boke” among the ancient Mongols. The term “bukh” originated as the title of a public official (Buyandelger, 2017, p. 162) and was used by the ancient Mongols in the sixth century. For example, Chunu‘s mother, who ascended the throne in 520 during the Rouran dynasty founded by the ancient Mongols, appointed Tsiufeny and Lizyule, officials with the title of “mohe” (Sukhbaatar, Mongolian Rouran Khaganate. AD330–555, 1992, p. 126). The word “mohe” mentioned here is a historical variant of the term “bukh” (“boke” in the traditional Mongolian script), which is traditional among modern Mongolians. It is proven by the results of a study that clarified the evolution of the written form of this term, which has been inherited and used among Mongolians for over a thousand years, from a linguistic point of view and linked it to the peculiarities of ancient social relations (Perlee, 1956, pp. 13–14). According to the researcher (Perlee, 1956), between the eleventh to thirteenth centuries, the name “bohe (boke)” was preserved in the traditional written heritage of the Mongols. Later, in the twentieth century, it was used as a “bukh” in the modern Mongolian language. Combining these historical facts and the results of historical linguistic research, the ancient Mongols used the title “bukh” as a title given to them by the state in recognition of their efforts in the defense of their country. Wrestling flourished among the ancient Mongols (Buyandelger and Dalanbayar, 2021. 38, no. 9, pp. 992–993), but there is no evidence from historical sources that it was called by any title other than “bukh.” Therefore, it can be concluded that the wrestlers who were selected as part of the traditional Mongolian Naadam festival in ancient times were called “bukh.” Taking these historical facts into account, it cannot be ruled out that the tradition of the ancient Mongols selecting the best wrestlers for their strength and technique and employing them in the royal palace dates back to this period. However, during the Xiongnu period (Batsaikhan, 2003; Ochir, 2007; Sukhbaatar, 1980), the purpose of the Naadam festival may have been in some way related to military ranks, as it was a means of providing military training and improving the organization of warfare. But the evidence for it has not been passed down to us today.

Tuoba Gui (386–409), founder of the Tuoba Wei dynasty (Grousset, 1970, pp. 60–65), part of the ancient Mongols, Bumin Qaghan (490–552), founder of the first Turkic khaganate (Kwanten, 1979, pp. 27–48) in Mongolia, and Bayanchur Qaghan (713–759) of the Uyghur khaganate (Mackerras, 1972, pp. 7–14) were crowned kings. Some researchers (Erdene, 1992, p. 32) have concluded that the winners of the major Naadam festival for ceremonies were called khagans. However, this conclusion may be erroneous due to the lack of sufficient historical evidence and similar conclusions from other researchers. Erdene G. further noted that the leaders of the Khitan Liao Dynasty gave the title of “khagan” to the winner of the big Naadam festival on the occasion of the coronation of the king and the event that some ancient countries made a city the capital (Erdene, 1992). Although this does not contradict the Mongolian tradition of organizing the Naadam festival for major historical events, it can be seen from the Mongolian historical tradition that the title “khagan” was not given to anyone other than a public official (Kurakichi, 1926, pp. 241–244). According to the traditional interpretation of the historical process of the formation of the Mongolian wrestling ranking system (Erdene, 1992, p. 32), wrestlers have been given titles named after birds such as khartsaga, burgud (eagle), garuda, and shonkhor (falcon) since the end of the eleventh century. From the middle of the twelfth century, the titles tulgat (strong and stable), shandas (the most delicate tendon) were added, and from the middle of the thirteenth century nachin, zaan, arslan, avarga at the Naadam festival.

Clarifying or refuting this record as historically accurate is crucial to understanding the origins of the Mongolian wrestling title. “The Secret History of the Mongols” (Rachewiltz, 2015), the main source of Mongolian history, has a relatively rich history of wrestling. The source clearly mentions a number of powerful men and the process of wrestling, but does not mention that they were named after any birds or animals. The names “bukh or bökö” such as Zutgel bukh (Čiduqul Bökö), Chilger bukh (Čilger Bökö) and Buri bukh (Büri Bökö) are clearly mentioned in “The Secret History of the Mongols”. Among the Mongols, “bukh” had meant a name for a man who excelled in skill, strength, and ingenuity, it was a tradition to be the head of a tribe (Perlee, 1956, p. 14). It is possible that the evolution of the title “bukh” took place at a certain historical stage in its development. This is because the Zutgel bukh and Chilger bukh mentioned in the source were the chiefs of their respective tribes (Perlee, 1956, p. 7; 38–39). One of the most notable man from this source is Buri bukh, who is spelled “ulus-un bukh” in the Mongolian versions (The Secret History of the Mongols, 2008, p. 69) of “The Secret History of the Mongols” and “strongest man” in the English version (Rachewiltz, 2015, p. 58). He belonged to the Jurkin clan, and Khabul Khan (1130–1146) deliberately collected for his grandson to “choose men for him from among his own people and, having chosen them, gave him strong and mighty men who had” (Rachewiltz, 2015, p. 57). It is interesting to know whether “ulus-un” is a title that marks the best wrestler.

The word “ulus-un” was introduced into the Mongolian state tradition in the 13^th century and is one of the titles of high-ranking government officials. When Chinggis Khaan established the Great Mongol Empire in 1206, he rewarded many people for their achievements. For example, “van” (prime minister), “zargach” (chief judge), and “behi” (head of experts) have been created with the addition of “ulus-un”. Historically, Buri Bukh belonged to the pre-Mongol Empire and did not receive the title bestowed on him by Chinggis Khaan. Although this was preceded by the re-establishment of the Khamag Mongol Empire in 1189, there is no record of any titles other than that of “buurchi” (chef), “khonichin” (shepherd), “agtchin” (horseman), or “gazarch” (guide). On the other hand, if Buri Bukh was not recorded in historical records, but had been a wrestler with a title bestowed upon him by Chinggis Khaan, he would not have fought against the emperor (Rachewiltz, 2015, p. 52) of his country, as was the custom at the time. From all this, it can be explained that Buri bukh‘s “ulus-un” is not a title that ranks wrestlers, but a wrestler who was famous among many tribes of the time before the establishment of the Mongol Empire. At that time, wrestlers were most frequently accompanied with the title of “ulus-un”, nonetheless had this term “ulus-un” been a title awarded by the state, after Buri bukh, someone would have given the title “ulus-un bukh” to a good wrestler, and apparently someone worthy of such state award – Belgutei, the younger brother of Chinggis Khaan. From these historical considerations, it is clear that during the Mongol Empire, no titles were given to wrestlers and no wrestlers were ranked. However, it can be said that if good wrestlers worked for the state and made special achievements, they would be rewarded with state official ranks and of political power. It is interesting to read how it is recorded in historical sources as stated: “Further, Činggis Qa’an said to Qubilai, ‘For me you pressed down the necks of the mighty ones, the buttocks of the strong ones… Qubilai, will you not be in charge of all military affairs?’ So he ordered, favouring him” (Rachewiltz, 2015, p. 134).

It should be marked that no historical source (Al-Ghazi, 2007); (P. Blake & N. Frye, 1949) from the thirteenth to fourteenth century mentions the awarding of titles based on the success of wrestling. This argument requires more evidence from scholars (Sodnoi & Bayanmunkh, 2005, p. 18) who date the origins of the Mongolian wrestling title to the thirteenth century. Therefore, we judge that it is worthwhile to rely more on sources after the mentioned historical period for the study of wrestling titles. The report that Yongsheebuu’s Sorsun bukh was executed by the Mongolian king Esen Taishi in 1449 has been preserved (History of Mongolia: From the Middle of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 17th Century, 2003, p. 58). This was due to the disclosure of state secrets, and Sorsun bukh spread the news that Emperor Yingzong of Ming was a prisoner of the Mongols (Jorgensen et al., 2008, p. 12), without the Esen Taishi king’s permission. Another story states that in 1490, Mandukhai Khatun fell from a horse and Bayan Bukh of Balgachin and Batbold bukh of Asud escaped on horseback (Luvsandanzan, 1990, p. 175). From the narrations of the above historical sources, it seems that in the fifteenth century, there were no special wrestling titles among the Mongols, and if there was a tradition of ranking wrestling by title, it would be mentioned. The fact that Sorsun, Bayan, and Batbold are only referred to as “bukh” is an indication that the word continues to refer to well-known wrestlers.

In 1640, the first Danshig Naadam of the Khalkha Doloon Khoshuu was held to commemorate Undur Gegeen Zanabazar (Christian, 2018, p. 185) as the first head of the Gelug (Yellow Hat) lineage of Buddhism in Mongolia. The winners of the Danshig Naadam were awarded the titles of arslan, zaan and nachin. This concept cannot be supported by data from other historical sources. However, the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) lineage of Buddhism in 17^th century Mongolia must be directly linked to the development of Danshig Naadam, a cultural and historical process (Nyam-Osor and Batsukh, 1989, p. 13). This is because the use of the names of animals such as arslan and zaan that do not live in Mongolian plateau in awarding titles to Khalkha wrestlers is related to the culture of Buddhism based on Indian and Tibetan traditions (Bayar, 1993., p. 8). In 1697, the Khalkha rulers returned to their homeland after participating in a ceremony to declare their allegiance to the Qin (Manchu) dynasty. Lam Bukh, who defeated all his rivals in Danshig Naadam, who was commemorated for that process, was awarded the title of arslan in Mongolian folklore (Nyam-Osor and Batsukh, 1989, p. 14). Some scholars believe that the story is not about the first title or chimeg in Khalkha wrestling, but about Lam Bukh‘s first title (Sodnoi & Bayanmunkh, 2005, p. 35). The main reason for this conclusion is related to the tropical animals fed by the kings of the Yuan dynasty of Mongolia. There is a historical source that the kings of the Yuan dynasty of Mongolia fed a variety of animals and birds (Moule & Pelliot, 1938, pp. 229–234). Also, the influence of Sakya (Red Hat sect) lineage of Tibetan Buddhism during the Yuan dynasty (Rossabi, 1988, pp. 41–42) may have influenced Mongolian wrestling to some extent, but there is no evidence that they were used as titles in wrestling.

4. Formation of the Mongolian wrestling title system: Aspects of symbolic content

The first official record of awarding a title to a Mongolian wrestler was made in 1729 in a historical source about Danshig Naadam (Lomakina, 2006, pp. 22–24). According to the record, the wrestler with the title zaan won the title of arslan by defeating all his opponents. In addition, other successful wrestlers were awarded the title of some animal or bird (Byambaa, 2015, p. 20; Ganzorig, 2016, p. 3). The event is dedicated to the inauguration of the second Jebtsundamba Khutughtu of Buddhism in Mongolia. It is interesting to note that in the oral history mentioned in the previous section, the title of Mongolian wrestler is also associated with Danshig Naadam. Therefore, the title of Mongolian wrestling can be directly related to the spread of Buddhism in Mongolia. It is important to reconsider another fact from the oral history of Buryatia that testifies to the use of the title of wrestler by the Mongols in the early 18^th century. This is due to zangia or jangaa (silk strands colored in different except for black), which have been traditionally worshipped in the Buddhist temples of Akhar, Buryatia. The owner of the zangia, his powerful son, went to a Danshig Naadam festival organized under the auspices of Undur Gegeen Zanabazar and defeated all his rivals. Among those rivals, Avarga won the title with great success. That’s why Dayan Avarga was given the title along with zangia (Zorigtuev, 1983). It is believed that the Emperor Yongzheng‘s decree of 1723 became an important legal basis for the development of the existing Mongolian wrestling title. The decree called for the further development of wrestling (Damdin, 1971, p. 44). At the time, the Khalkha were dependent on the Qin (Manchu) dynasty, and through the Ministry of Mongolia, they pursued policies that had a significant impact on society, culture, and customs. One of his expressions is related to wrestling. The title of Mongolian wrestling cannot be considered to have originated from this period, but the version we have inherited now is inevitably related to the historical process of this period.

About ten wrestlers from Mongolia wrestled in Dolonnuur in 1763, and in 1767 six wrestlers were brought to the capital of the Qin dynasty for wrestling (Nyam-Osor and Batsukh, 1989, p. 8). However, the titles of these wrestlers are not specified. In 1807, Gur Bukh defeated all the elite wrestlers of the royal palace of Qin dynasty (Damdin, 1971, p. 45). The note mentions that the wrestlers of the Qin dynasty were ranked in the same order (first class wrestlers, second class wrestlers, etc.), but did not mention the title of Mongolian wrestlers. This may have been the reason why Mongolian wrestling titles were not recorded in official documents due to government policy of Qin dynasty. In any case, the wrestling title was established at this time, which is clearly preserved in the documents of the Naadam Festival, which are kept in the National Archives of Mongolia (Encyclopedia of Mongolian Wrestling, 2013, pp. 516–521). According to the researcher (Altan-Ochir, 1986), in addition to the Mongols, some nomadic tribes named their wrestlers arslan tusheet bukh and bars tusheet bukh. However, it is not yet clear how they interacted. According to the researcher Shagdargochoo (Shagdargochoo, 1960, p. 9), a manuscript dating back to 1717 clearly states about wrestlers with the title of avarga (Saikhanchimeg and Lamjav). Unfortunately, the manuscript has not survived to this day, but this fact is significant since it indicates that the Mongolian wrestling title was formed in the 17^th century.

By the 18^th century, Khalkha wrestling titles were divided into two levels: national and local, with five titles at each level. The national rank consisted of five titles: tulgat, nachin, zaan, arslan and avarga. The local titles were shonkhor, khartsaga, burgud, garuda, and shandas (Shagdargochoo, 1960, p. 53). Another proof of these ten different titles with different names is the “Mongolian Wrestling Praise”, which has been preserved in the oral tradition among the Mongols and later recorded in writing (Compilation of Poetry of Three Men’s Games, 1961, pp. 27–30). In 1778, the Manchu emperor issued an edict ordering the Mongols to hold the Naadam festival only to worship sacred mountains (ovoo) and to perform religious rites (Erdene, 1992, p. 33), making it difficult to use these two different levels of national and local rank. Since 1859, at the request of some Khalkha princes, Mongolian wrestling titles were transferred to four (nachin, zaan, arslan, avarga) levels (Shagdargochoo, 1960, p. 10). Legal documents proving how these changes took place have not yet been preserved. Therefore, the records of the Danshig Naadam festival since 1803, which are kept in the archives, can be clarified (Ganzorig, 2016, pp. 5–47); (Bat-Ochir, 2008); (Bat-Ochir, Three Games for Men: 1909–1921, 1996). This does not sufficiently prove the fact that wrestling titles were divided into two categories: national and local. However, it is important to remember that these archival documents date back to 1778 and may contain the effects of the loss of traditional regulation.

Evidence suggests that before 1859, the most common titles were avarga, arslan, zaan, and nachin. At the same time, sixty-seven khartsaga titles, ninety-six shonkhor titles, twenty-one shandas titles, twenty-eight tulgat titles, two garuda titles, and fifty-one burgud titles were awarded to wrestlers. Initially, it was used an average of four times per Naadam festival, but it is interesting to note that the frequency of use has been declining over the years. This indicates that the titles were widely used, but their use was declining. However, these titles have been used only thirty-four times in the sixty-three festivals since 1859, and have not been awarded since 1901. Therefore, it is possible that in 1859, a legal regulation was made to organize the Mongolian wrestling title into a four-tier system. According to the records of the 1862 Danshig Naadam festival, the seventeen most successful wrestlers were awarded the titles of zaan and arslan, and the undefeated avarga wrestler was awarded the (ocean or great) chimeg Dalai (Shishmarev, 1863). Subsequently, the first decree of the Bogd khan (18^th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu) issued in 1911 provided that all titles were still used and universally followed, so the Mongolian wrestling titles (nachin, zaan, arslan, avarga) remained the same (Urangua, 2000, p. 71).

As the Mongolian wrestling title evolved, a chimeg was created to highlight it. This is because wrestlers who have achieved the same level of development have been awarded the same title (in some cases, about a dozen wrestlers who have won five consecutive Naadam festivals receive the same title), so there is a need to differentiate between them (Buyandelger, 2017, p. 178). Therefore, the title chimeg was awarded according to the strength of the wrestler, the technique used in wrestling, wrestling skills, courage, agility, physical appearance and character. In the future, the title chimeg will provide psychological support to wrestlers, increase their self-confidence, encourage them to strive for greater success, and glorify the success of wrestling (Sodnoi & Bayanmunkh, 2005, p. 24). Of these many chimegs, chimegs such as “dalai (ocean or great)”, “daichin (warrior)”, “dayan (universal)”, and “darkhan (inviolable craftsman)” are used only for avarga (the highest rank in Mongolian wrestling). These chimegs were used by the Khong Taiyji‘s until the end of the 17^th century, one of the largest representatives of the Mongolian aristocracy. For example, Darkhan Khong Taiyji was a nationally recognized sovereign power during the Mongol Empire, but in the 15^th to 17^th centuries, its importance declined to be limited to its own territory (Gerelbadrakh, 1999, p. 32). This is due to the fact that Mongolia is no longer under the unified rule of one emperor, but is divided into independent possessions of many aristocrats. The aforementioned chimegs are used to distinguish the same Khong Taiyji s, which is similar to the way they are used in wrestling (Gerelbadrakh, 1999, p. 9). At the Dolonnuur ceremony in 1691, the Khong Taiyji disappeared with the Manchu emperor’s order that prohibited the usage of traditional titles of the Mongol aristocracy (History of Mongolia: From the Middle of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 17th Century, 2003, p. 120). Thus, due to the political situation, it can be concluded that the chimeg used by the Khong Taiyji was used for Mongolian wrestling. At the beginning of the 18^th century, avarga wrestlers were given the “Dayan” chimeg (Zorigtuev, 1983, pp. 134–141), and in the middle of the 19^th century, the Avarga wrestlers who won the Danshig Naadam festival were given daichin, dayan, dalai, and darkhan chimegs (Shishmarev, 1863); (Byambaa, Notes on Mongolian Wrestling in Historical Sources, 2015, p. 30). This process is recorded in the records of a man who traveled through Mongolia and served as a diplomat. Although chimeg was not intended to rank wrestlers achievements at the time, there were some special arrangements associated with Mongolian symbolism of three (Nagaanbuu, 1999, pp. 45–51). For example, winning Danshig Naadam three times in a row, also, wins the chimeg mentioned earlier. Even if he (avarga, dalai avarga, daichin avarga, dayan avarga and darkhan avarga) didn’t wrestle, he would receive the same prize for the rest of his life as the winner.

According to historical records, until the end of the 18^th to19^th centuries, about twenty wrestlers won the title of avarga (Tsogtbaatar, 2012, pp. 5–25). An analysis of how these wrestlers were given chimeg is important to understand the purpose of its usage. During development, the “darkhan” and “dayan” chimeg were used to celebrate the success of wrestlers and to rank wrestlers, while the “dalai” and “daichin” chimegs have been traditionally accompanied by additional highlights. The reason for mentioning all this in detail is to correct the fact that these chimegs of the Mongolian national wrestling avarga rank have been understood as if they had remained the rank of wrestlers’ success since their inception. According to sources (Magsarjav, 1960, p. 23), the chimeg given to wrestlers differed from each other, so it seems that in the early 20^th century, there was no regular chimeg that accompanied each title. The peculiarities of Mongolian nomadic civilization and the level of development of written rules of Mongolian wrestling may have influenced this. In fact, the wrestling title chimeg has been perfected since the middle of the 20^th century and has been one of the main tools for expressing the achievements and rankings of wrestlers. Although historical records indicate that a written wrestling code was issued in 1876, it did not specify a wrestling title or chimeg (Byambaa, 2015, p. 90). Mongolian wrestling titles are more symbolic than chimeg. The chimeg, on the other hand, is rich in real expression but poetic. For this reason, Khalkha wrestling (Develt) ceremonial dance (Shagdargochoo, 1960, p. 38) developed into an art form in harmony with the rhythm of the song, influencing the expansion of the chanting the title (bukh tsollokh) ritual (Batbold, 2021, pp. 22–25; Bayanjargal, 1987, p. 13; Jantsannorov, 2001, pp. 1–3). It can be concluded that the Mongolian wrestling title and chimeg were developed between the 17^th to 19^th centuries. In the next section, we will outline how its symbolic content relates to the socio-political process.

5. Symbolism of the Mongolian wrestling title is related to the socio-political situation in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries

The socio-political ideology of Mongolians in the 17^th−19^th centuries, which is a symbol of the Mongolian wrestling title, can be divided into the following three areas. These include: 1. Remembering the greatness of the Mongol Empire, 2. Promoting Buddhism to strengthen spiritual independence, and 3. Rebellion against the Qin dynasty. In terms of foreign policy, by the end of the 16^th century, Mongolia’s neighboring Manchus had become much stronger, conquering many tribes by military force and establishing a large independent state (Jamsran, 1973). This process began to pose a real threat to Mongolia’s independence. In order to unite the forces of the people against Qin dynasty, he recalled the power of the Mongol Empire and tried to revive the affairs of the great Mongol kings in the form of reusing the name of Chinggis Khaan (Luvsandanzan, 1990, p. 185) in the political arena. In the cultural sphere, however, it was expressed through the symbols of the Mongols (Dulam, 1999, pp. 3–4; Nagaanbuu, 1999, p. 28), and the idea that the Mongols valued the symbolism has survived to this day (Nyambuu, 1970, p. 3). In this context, the Mongolian wrestling rank was strongly influenced by the activities and reputation (an intangible heritage) of the falconry (Erdenebat, 2014, pp. 5–7; Falconry, a Living Human Heritage, 2021), which was intensively developed by the great kings of Mongolia (Buyandelger, 2003, p. 98; 117); (Buyandelger, 2005, p. 93). For example, the titles shonkhor, khartsaga, burgud, and nachin fall into this category. Representing the falconry, these titles formed a complex symbolic system in conjunction with other traditional Mongolian wrestling rituals (develt (Buyandelger, 2008, p. 82; Shagdargochoo, 1960, p. 38), bukh tavikh (Buyandelger, 2003, p. 102; Jigmeddorj & Bolishev, 1964, p. 89). Researchers (Buyandelger and Sukhbaatar, 2010, p. 42; Compilation of Poetry of Three Men’s Games, 1961, p. 25; Erdene, 1992, p. 32; Shagdargochoo, 1960, p. 9) have differing views on the origins and dates of these titles, but they are based on historical sources from the 17^th century. This rationale is detailed in the previous sections.

Falconry was popular in the royal family and aristocracy during the Mongol Empire, and other tropical beasts were also used for hunting (Moule & Pelliot, 1938, pp. 227–228). The title of Mongolian wrestler may have originated in the activities of the wrestling organization under the royal palace of the Yuan dynasty of Mongolia (Altan-Ochir, 1986, p. 31; Temur & Sodnom, 1986, p. 17). On the one hand, however, historical evidence to support it has not yet been preserved. On the other hand, it can be concluded that the cultural development of the Mongols was greatly degraded due to the consequences of the foreign (Ming dynasty) conquests (History of Mongolia: From the Middle of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 17th Century, 2003, pp. 162–163) and the rivalries of the local aristocracy (Perlee, 1974). However, this process, which formed the system of Mongolian wrestling titles in the 17^th century, has been passed down to the present day. The title of tulgat should also be included in the symbol of the title commemorating the power of the Mongol Empire. The word Tulgat is derived from the word “fire that ignites the hearth” (Bold, 2016) and symbolizes the new state. Therefore, this title is a strong indication that Mongolia’s independence will continue. Since the Danshig Naadam festival brings together the rulers of the four Khalkha provinces and many khoshuu, it can be concluded that naming the wrestling title as a symbol of independence was significant in terms of its impact on society. According to some scholars (Compilation of Poetry of Three Men’s Games, 1961, pp. 27–30; Shagdargochoo, 1960, p. 53), the title of tulgat is given to wrestlers first among other titles, and is also mentioned at the beginning of the traditional praise of the Mongolian wrestling title.

Mongolian wrestling titles zaan (elephant), arslan (lion), and garuda (mythical bird) were created under the influence of Buddhism. Zaan is one of the seven values of the most powerful ruler mentioned in ancient Indian mythology. According to Buddhism, the king who created these values is the one who rules the world (Nyambuu, 1990, p. 25). These values became important in Buddhist rituals in Mongolia at a time when the idea of restoring the power of the Mongol Empire was symbolized by religious activities. Since the Mongolian wrestling title is directly related to the development of the Danshig Naadam festival, which was held for Buddhist purposes, it can be concluded that Buddhism had a strong influence on the formation of the Mongolian wrestling zaan title. On the other hand, this symbolic animal, the zaan, is white in color and is a symbol of beauty, strength, dignity, intelligence, and peace. According to Buddhist mythology, the Buddha symbolizes the birth of a white elephant (Biography of the Buddha, 2012). Therefore, the title of zaan was given to wrestlers as a symbol of the leader of Mongolian Buddhism.

The title of arslan in Mongolian wrestling symbolizes the power, strength and courage of the king. On the other hand, it symbolizes the Buddha’s courage to alleviate the suffering of mankind. The Buddha’s teachings are often referred to as “the roar of the lion” in order to overcome obstacles and increase one’s strength to create happiness and harmony in life (Buyanbadrakh, 2012, p. 598). Also, this lion is not represented as a real animal, but as a white lion that is believed to live in the snowy mountains (Tulga, 2019). Since there are no lions in the snowy mountains, it represents the learned monks who practice Buddhism and ascend the mountains. That’s why the tradition of awarding the title of Arslan to a wrestler who defeated all his opponents at the Danshig Naadam festival continues to this day. The traditional notion of the lion persisted among the Mongols, which was deeply rooted in the Mongolian wrestling title system in line with this Buddhist teaching. In the Mongolian tradition, the lion was called the king of the beasts (Tserensodnom, 1982, p. 51; 55; 86), and the handle of the seal used for official purposes was depicted as a lion and placed as a majestic statue outside a large building. It is also a symbol that has been widely used in everyday life, such as painting the front of a storage container (avdar) on the north side of the house.

The Mongolian wrestling title Garuda is a symbol of the mythical bird (Norjin & Murun, 1999, 1651) known not only in Mongolia but also in many oriental nations as the “Bird Lord” (The Popular Mythical Animals in Bhutan: Dragon, Garuda,Snow Lion, Tiger, Windhorse,Takin, Raven,Yeti, 2021). In Buddhism, garuda symbolizes the protection of a religious leader, symbolizing his ability to walk without stumbling in both the heavens and the earth, and his constant vigilance (Robert & Donald, 2013, pp. 314–315). Since Garuda is a mythical creature that can fly straight from birth without any obstacles and represents a perfect nature, it can be concluded that it was very convenient to use its name in Mongolian wrestling at the time when Buddhism was being propagated. However, there is another reason why Garuda was used as a Mongolian wrestling title at the Danshig Naadam festival. This is related to the image of a garuda holding a snake. This may be a symbol of overcoming the resistance of traditional Mongolian shamanism (Purevjav, 1978, pp. 53–54), which idolizes the serpent as the owner of the land (Buyandelger and Sukhbaatar, 2008, p. 35; Purev, 1999).

Buddhism had a significant impact on the lives of Mongolians in the 17^th century, including the development of the Mongolian wrestling title, which is directly related to the socio-political situation at the time. In 1640, the Khalkha-Oirat aristocracy met and planned to implement a comprehensive legal and religious policy against the Manchu rule (History of Mongolia: From the Middle of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 17th Century, 2003, p. 108). To that end, he promoted the son of an influential Khalkha prince as the head of Khalkha Buddhism, and in order to make the event a success, he began to interpret many cultural elements based on traditional shamanic ideas in Buddhist context (Bayarmaa & Buyandelger, 2017, pp. 51–54). Therefore, the influence of Buddhism on the Mongolian wrestling rank is not only the process of religious spread. However, it should be concluded that it is part of the cultural development process of Mongolians to protect their independence. It should not be forgotten that the unification of the political disintegration of many Mongolian aristocrats in the 15^th to 17^th centuries was one of the main goals of Buddhism in Mongolia (History of Mongolia: From the Middle of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 17th Century, 2003, pp. 108–109).

Recently, some scholars (Munkh-Erdene, 2021, p. 3) have suggested that the Mongols did not fall under Manchu rule in the seventeenth century, but formed an alliance. However, the Mongols have always maintained their desire for independence. The Manchus sought to change the Khalkha government, dismantle its political unity, and use its economic and military capabilities to suppress the uprisings and movements of other nations under its rule (History of Mongolia: From the Middle of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 17th Century, 2003, p. 166). In some ways, this has had a positive effect on the development of Mongolian wrestling. The establishment of the Khoshuu administrative schedule led to the development of wrestling in every corner of Mongolia, as well as the regular holding of the Khoshuu Naadam festival (Buyandelger, 2017, p. 81). On the other hand, it can be concluded that the Qins ruled the Mongols with relative independence in three parts (Khalkha, Inner Mongolia, and Oirat), which contributed to the further development of three different streams of Mongolian wrestling (Bayar, 1993., pp. 3–5). Out of these three streams of Mongolian wrestling, only Khalkha wrestling has developed its wrestling title and passed it on to the present day. Therefore, the history of Mongolian wrestling title is directly related to the socio-political situation and intellectual and cultural development of Khalkha in the 17^th century.

The titles shandas (the most delicate tendon) and avarga (champion, or giant snake in some versions) are believed to have become symbols of knowledge of the real world. The names of these titles do not represent any objects, birds, or religious symbols. The word “shandas” signifies strength and endurance, while avarga signifies being better than others, or being able to defeat all one’s opponents. Thus, these two titles symbolized mankind and brought the idea of the struggle for independence of Mongolian wrestling titles to its peak. Mongolian wrestling title Shandas is the highest rank of the local level and avarga is the highest rank of the national level (Shagdargochoo, 1960, p. 38). There is a common perception among Mongolians that the title of Mongolian wrestler uses the whole of the four dignities in Buddhism (garuda, snow lion, tiger, dragon). However, this is flawed, as can be seen in the symbolism of the above two titles. If these two titles are used at a higher level than the other titles, they must be a symbol of something more valuable than other types of titles. Having said this, it is necessary to look for this symbol in the traditional ideas of Mongolians and in the content of Buddhism.

In Mongolian mythology, “mankind” is considered to be the most powerful and intelligent special being in the universe (Buyandelger, 2009, pp. 28–29; 33–34). According to the traditional tale, all animals are fearful of man, and that great power is in his mind (Tserensodnom, 1982, pp. 55–57; 63–66). An analysis of the Mongolian (Khalkha) wrestling system as a whole reveals a clear pattern of intellectual values (Buyandelger, Philosopical Analyze of the Mongolian Wrestling, 2003, pp. 31–34). Thus, the highest ranks of Mongolian wrestling, shandas and avarga, are a symbol of man and his intellect. The titles not only stand out from the crowd, but also mean that they are the only (single, first, etc.) ones (Dulam, 1999, p. 99) who have not lost to any of their competitors at the Naadam festival. Interestingly, the notion of mankind in the Mongolian mythology has deepened, and gradually the story emerges that mankind is not an inactive or passive creature, but the creator of the world’s continents (Buyandelger, Philosophical Analyze of Mongolian Wrestling II, 2005, pp. 101–104). The fact that the creator-hero is described as a wrestler remains the essence of the depiction of wrestling in Mongolian folklore (Buyandelger & Khosbayar, The 44 Heroic Epics with Wrestling Content, 2020, pp. 213–221). According to shamanism, mankind is not the highest being in the world. Rather, in shamanism, it is believed that mankindis the creation of Tengri or Heaven, it is the center of all processes and phenomena on earth (Buyandelger, Mongolian Mind: Metaphysics, 2009, p. 44). In the same way, a wrestler with the title of avarga, a cultural masterpiece of Mongolians, enjoys the most privileges in the field of his activities (Mongolian wrestling, Naadam, etc.). In some cases, some scholar (Bayanmunkh, 2018) suggested that the development and history of Mongolian wrestling can be traced back to the history of the avarga (unfortunately, the title shandas was not used at the Naadam festival for more than a century, only for children’s wrestling). This concept is not entirely acceptable, but it can never deny the special position of the avarga.

For Mongolian Buddhists, the Buddha and khutughtu is not a great force, but a person who has developed his intellect and morals to a very high level. This is consistent with the traditional Mongolian view of man. However, wrestlers with this symbolic title are under the direct patronage of real people, such as nobles, aristocrats and khutughtu (Montagu, 1956, p. 148; Pegg, 2001, p. 211). The title Shandas symbolizes man, but it should be concluded that he represents a relatively low level only in terms of his strength and endurance. Perhaps this is why, during the development of the Mongolian wrestling title, wrestling skills were given to children who had not yet fully developed their skills. However, the tradition of awarding the title of avarga to wrestlers who excel in strength, intelligence, and morality continues today. Let’s think about how the Mongolian wrestling titles, which symbolize human beings, are connected with the idea of the struggle for independence. On the one hand, as mentioned earlier, it represents a sacred idol of Buddhism that has spread throughout Asia and cannot be ruled by a single emperor. Therefore, think that the Mongols were administratively dependent on the Qin Empire, but their ideology, culture, and religion meant that they could never submit to the emperor of one country. On the other hand, by expressing an intelligent and strong person, it symbolizes the continuous birth of people who are determined to defend their independence. There are many people in Mongolian history who have been noted for their special role in the struggle against the Manchus. They included Amursana (Perdue, 2009, p. 491), Chingunjavi (Ann, 2003, p. 17; 23), second Jebtsundamba Khutugtu (Luvsandambiydonmi) and other nobles and even ordinary people (History of Mongolia: From the Middle of the 14th Century to the Beginning of the 17th Century, 2003, pp. 151–161).

6. Conclusion

There is a widespread opinion that the titles of Mongolian wrestlers contain only symbols formulated using the names of winged birds and animals. However, different symbols can be seen if we look at the history and development of the Mongolian wrestling title as a whole. Therefore, it is doubtful that animal names are used as symbols only for mythological purposes. In particular, the retro meaning used as an accent in the title expresses the characteristics and style of human and social life rather than clearly showing any animal. An analysis of the symbolic system of the Mongolian wrestling title based on this basis from a socio-political point of view led to interesting results. The heritage of the title of Mongolian wrestling originates from the title given to those who played a special role in the successful implementation of state affairs of the state during the time of the ancient states in Mongolia. This system of titles was not widely used in Mongolian wrestling until the seventeenth century, and today one can find several facts recorded in some of the historical sources. However, in the composition of modern Mongolian wrestling, tsols, and chimegs are an integral part. In addition, there is also the custom of “wrestling titles” (we do not intend to study this custom), in which the titles and awards of famous wrestlers are melodiously pronounced at state ceremonies.

To summarize, the Mongolian wrestling title originated in the early seventeenth century and only matured in the eighteenth century. It is true that the spread of Buddhism had a great influence on the formation of the Mongolian wrestling title, but it cannot be explained from that point of view alone. Instead, it is better to link it to the socio-political situation in which we want to defend our independence through real struggle and symbolic ideas. Mongolian wrestling titles reflect the distinctive features of the falconry-an intangible heritage (falcon, hawk, eagle, common cestrel) and are a symbol of the state’s independence (tulgat). In order to depict the impact of the Buddhist worldview the representation of the four dignities (elephants, lions, garuda), the expression of knowledge about the real world (shandas, avarga or champion) and multifaceted influences. Of these, six titles, nachin, khartsaga, zaan, garuda, arslan, and avarga, are still used in Khalkha wrestling at the Mongolian National Naadam Festival.

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to complete this article, A special gratitude I give to Senior Editor Samuel Adu-Gyamfi, Professor Simon Wickhamsmith, and an anonymous reviewer for valuable revisions that helped us in writing this article. Furthermore, I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation to Mrs Narantuya Ichinkhorloo, Mrs Zoljargalan Gantumur, Mr Erkhes Erdenebaatar who have contributed so much to the revision of the academic level of English

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Buyandelger Batmunkh

Buyandelger Batmunkh is a researcher in the field of Mongolian philosophy, Mongolian history, and culture. He holds a Ph.D. in traditions and innovations in the moral values of Mongolian national wrestling at the Mongolian State University of Education. He has authored and published numerous books on Mongolian philosophical thought and the history and culture of Mongolian wrestling.

Dalanbayar Boldbaatar

Dalanbayar Boldbaatar is a researcher in the field of Mongolian wrestling studies. He is studying for a doctorate at the Mongolian State University of Education.

Notes

1. Unfortunately, when translating the title of Mongolian wrestler into English, it is customary to mark this title as falcon. If we study the history of Mongolian wrestling titles in depth, it is not appropriate to make such a statement. This is because the title of shonkhor (falcon) is no longer officially used, but it was used as one of the main titles in the nineteenth century and was used as a title for junior wrestlers from the 1930s to the 2000s.