Travelling songs: Heritage and popular culture in contemporary ASEAN

Abstract

Music and songs are among the many intangible cultural heritages whose ownership is liable to be contested by communities and nation-states wanting to disseminate them beyond their cultural and social orbits. In Southeast Asia, music and songs expressed in performing arts and other forms of artistic tradition have been central to the cultural repertoires of the people. But popular music, like other cultural forms, has emerged and evolved during the era of nation-states, and today popular music and songs travel faster across the region than ever before. The accelerating processes of cultural exchange, appropriation and evolution demand our attention and understanding. This article identifies several popular songs that have the potential to foster a sense of belonging and solidarity among the people of ASEAN. The role of entertainment media in disseminating popular songs from one country to others in the region is discussed as an important site for the fostering of cultural commonalities. We argue that the ability to recognize cultural commonalities and to accept one another’s distinctive expressions of shared cultural forms will be instrumental to easing anxiety about and dismissing narcissistic claims to ownership of certain cultural objects. Concrete mechanisms and initiatives for forging cultural commonality are needed, and the establishment of a discursive realm is certainly an instrumental step in this direction.

Keywords:

• Music
• songs
• intangible cultural heritage
• cultural diversity
• cultural identity
• popular culture
• ASEAN

Public Interest Statement

Music and songs are among the many intangible cultural heritages whose ownership is liable to be contested by communities and nation-states wanting to disseminate them beyond their cultural and social orbits. In Southeast Asia, popular music emerged and evolved during the era of nation-states, and today popular music and songs travel faster across the region than ever before. This article identifies several popular songs that have the potential to foster a sense of belonging and solidarity among the people of ASEAN. The role of entertainment media in disseminating popular songs from one country to others in the region is discussed as an important site for the fostering of cultural commonalities. We argue that the ability to recognize cultural commonalities and to accept one another’s distinctive expressions of shared cultural forms will be instrumental to easing anxiety about and dismissing narcissistic claims to ownership of certain cultural objects.

Introduction

In recent years, interest in recognition through inclusion in UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists has been growing rapidly. Concomitantly, the issue of competing claims to cultural heritage among countries has become more acute, especially among countries with overlapping cultural traditions and experiences.

Music and songs are among the many intangible cultural heritages whose ownership is liable to be contested and subject to claims and counter-claims. In ASEAN countries, for example, gamelan ensembles are found in both island and mainland locations, although the names of the ensembles may differ from one place to another. While the shared characteristics of such traditional cultural forms can be attributed to a general “Southeast Asian” origin and style, similar commonalities can also be observed in contemporary Southeast Asian popular music, by which we mean musical genres and songs whose tunes, beats and messages have mass appeal across the Southeast Asian region. Dangdut is a clear example of this phenomenon. A genre of popular music marked by a blend of Malay-Indonesian and Hindustani beats, dangdut has gained appeal far beyond the national boundaries of Indonesia and Malaysia.

In the Malay-Indonesian cultural scene, claims and counter-claims to “ownership” of certain musical genres, songs, and performances are sometimes made, especially on occasions when the cultural authorities of different countries publish national catalogues of their respective cultural products. Underdeveloped cultural literacy can lead to emotive verbal and on-line exchanges regarding ownership of cultural products. These emotive exchanges, exacerbated and amplified in online media, may have ramifications for the regional sense of cultural commonality and solidarity.

In this article, we aim to highlight and discuss the trend in Southeast Asian popular music where shared reception and appreciation of certain cultural products invoke a spirit of “we-ness” among the peoples of ASEAN in their cultural imagination and practices. A specific case study of a popular Malay/Indonesian song points to possibilities of forging a sense of regional belonging based on affinities of socio-cultural heritage and dissemination of popular arts and culture throughout the region.

A critical discussion of music and songs also requires us to look beyond rhythms and lyrics: every component of the music-making process must be examined, from the creator and his/her copyright and creative process, to the instruments used and audience reception and appreciation, especially in the entertainment industry. In addition to being a universal human expression, music is also reflective of the cultural particularities in which its forms emerge and develop. The evolution of musical genres and songs is also indicative of cultural blending in a larger context, apart from the affiliations and backgrounds of composers and producers.

The broad reception of music and song repertoires that have developed in different parts of Southeast Asia could well suggest ASEAN cultural commonalities stronger than we had imagined before. Commonalities in textile-making, oral literature, traditional sports, and even gastronomy reflect shared cultural traditions. In presenting and discussing shared cultural traditions, so as to avoid the myopic, exclusivist reading that cultural products only belong to particular traditions or groups of people, it is essential to take into consideration their evolution over time. Although today cultural heritage tends to be managed as part of the national culture of each nation-state, historically, cultural repertoires know no national boundaries.

In this article, we discuss travelling songs that are part of Southeast Asia’s popular music scene and can be seen to reflect cultural commonalities within and among the countries of the region. Our discussion of popular songs as uniting elements of Southeast Asian culture highlights the importance of cultural commonalities and shared sensibilities in the ASEAN context. Such discussions are particularly important given the anxieties of cultural contestation between Indonesia and Malaysia over inventories of cultural heritage which each nation wants to claim as its own.

Claims and Counter-claims: What are the Odds?

There are several common folk songs that have historically been performed throughout Southeast Asia whose origins are difficult to ascertain, making it difficult to validate their official inclusion in national cultural heritage inventories. In this respect, Ismail’s (2009) work on Geylang Serai, the Malay Muslim cultural enclave in Singapore, is informative. Immortalized in the 1960s in a popular Malay song titled “Di Waktu Petang di Geylang Serai” [An Afternoon at Geylang Serai], Geylang Serai was once the heartland for Malay Muslim communities on the east coast of the island. Another song, “Geylang Sipaku Geylang”, is often sung by school children and at communal events, while a third, “Di Tanjong Katong” is very similar to “Rasa Sayang”, one of the most popular songs in the entire region.

Although “Geylang Sipaku Geylang” and “Di Tanjong Katong” may refer specifically to Singapore, it would be misleading to say they belong to Singapore, as they are also popular in parts of Malaysia and Indonesia. Likewise, the folk song “Bengawan Solo”, which is of Indonesian origin, is played and sung among young students in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, while the popular Indonesian children’s song “Enjet-enjet Semut”, or “Injit-injit Semut”, has many regional variations. It is unrealistic to say that any one of these songs belongs to a particular country.

In recent decades, several songs popular in Indonesia have gained popularity and acceptance in other parts of Southeast Asia. The song “Madu dan Racun” by Bill & Brod has become very popular in Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and the Malay-speaking areas of South Thailand. The Minangnese folk song “Tak Tun Tuang” by Upiak Isil has also gained spectacular popularity, having been performed, remixed and even reproduced in Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and Vietnam in these countries’ respective languages. The “Tak Tun Tuang” phenomenon is reminiscent of the “Original Pinoy Music” (OPM/Filipino music) song “Anak” by Freddie Aguilar, which has been translated into 26 languages all over the world, including most of the ASEAN countries, and the 1989 song “Isabella” by Search, a four-piece band originally from Johor Bahru.

These examples of popular songs which have been received and highly appreciated throughout the region demonstrate the capacity of songs to play an integrating role in diverse and plural Southeast Asia, and to help Southeast Asians see themselves and others as essential and inter-connected parts of the wider region’s cultural mosaic.

The question we would like to pose here is, to what extent can these popular songs be (a) recognized as part of ASEAN regional culture and (b) harnessed as part of common ASEAN cultural life. This question points to the possibility of the creation or evolution of an ASEAN cultural and musical forum where the diverse Southeast Asian cultural mosaics could be brought together, at least in the realm of music and popular songs, with conscious efforts to mitigate the ethno-nationalist impulse to make claims to ownership of cultural products.

Chong (2012) reminds us of the irrational competitiveness that characterized the dispute between Indonesia and Malaysia over several objects of shared cultural heritage. Nicolas (2019) discusses music’s capacity to channel expressions of shared history and cultural tradition, thus supporting cross-cultural and inter-regional exchanges that transcend both natural and political boundaries. Music’s role in shared identity construction can be understood through the theory of identity fusion, which gives clear definition to human perceptions of personal and social self (Swann et al., 2012). Swann et al. define identity fusion as an experience of a visceral feeling of oneness with a group, where the feeling of union with the group is so strong in the group’s members that the boundaries which ordinarily demarcate personal and social self become permeable, allowing aspects of a member’s personal and social self to flow into others (Swann et al., 2012, p. 441). Two types of fusion can be identified: first, local fusion, where people develop intimate personal relations in a small group of close acquaintances; and second, extended fusion, where people engage in a larger group composed of many individuals with whom they have no personal relationships.

Ideally, identity fusion gives rise to a sense of belonging and togetherness among members of a group, allowing for strong feelings of inter-connectedness while not necessarily diminishing any one group member’s integrity of self (Swann et al., 2012, p. 443). In reality, however, it is more common for certain group members to project their personalities onto others and thus to dominate the group. In this situation, feelings of self-alienation can arise among subordinate group members.

In the period of massive globalization that characterized the early decades of the 21st century, various attempts were made to impose uniformity on populations so as to establish convenient and predictable conditions for global trade. These attempts largely failed, however, as people who felt depersonalized (Stets & Burke, 2000, p. 214) and “forced” to declare allegiance to certain domains refused to comply. Ideal identity fusion was not achieved, perhaps as a consequence of the neglect of cultural and historical rootedness (Swann et al., 2012, p. 444). This article adapts Stets and Burke’s (2000, p. 234) concept of salience to explore “self” on both macro and micro levels and to understand how people can achieve higher self-esteem in association with certain groups or communities.

What Exacerbates Contestation?

The cultural consolidation in the post-colonial independence of Southeast Asian nation-states saw the beginning of interest in national identity, heritage making, and the preservation of cultural practices and symbols as part of national treasures. Inevitably, these processes have led to contested claims, especially among countries with shared or common heritage. It is not uncommon for claims of ownership to be made (and contested by counter-claims) over songs, dances, food, clothes, and many other cultural forms and products. Such claims and counter-claims exacerbate diplomatic disputes over territorial claims to sea, land, and airspace. Although none of these disputes have escalated into physical conflicts, nonetheless hostilities are real and cannot be simply ignored or dismissed. The disputes also prevent the development of long-lasting, effective solutions. When the Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board launched a campaign using the folk song “Rasa Sayang”, it sparked fierce protest among Indonesians who claimed that the song belonged to Indonesians originating from Maluku. Malaysia was accused of stealing a cultural icon of its neighbor. The relationship between the two neighbors gradually turned sour as Indonesia scrutinized Malaysia’s culture and tourism promotion policies and programs more closely. Indonesians worried and expressed concern over the possibility that Malaysians would make further claims over cultural products deemed as belonging to or originating in Indonesia.

Two years after the “Rasa Sayang” controversy, another war of words erupted—this time over the pendet dance, which was featured in a Malaysian tourism advertisement aired on the Discovery Channel Asia-Pacific. Calls to safeguard Indonesian cultural products and symbols grew louder and wider in scope, aiming to discourage Malaysians from making further claims over batik, wayang kulit, keris, gamelan, rendang, and angklung. Some even denounced the Malaysian national anthem, “Negaraku”, as an act of plagiarism of an Indonesian folk song titled “Terang Bulan”. Indeed, historical evidence indicates that the song had its origins in Pierre-Jean de Béranger’s composition, which reached the region during the age of commerce in the 15^th century, but not specifically Indonesia (Kheng-Lian, 2014, p. 238).

Against the backdrop of these emotive issues and “nationalistic” sentiments, calls to “Ganyang Malaysia” (Crush Malaysia) could be heard, as in the period of Sukarno’s Konfrontasi when Indonesians denounced the formation of Malaysia as a continuation of the imperialist project in Southeast Asia. But these fiery contestations and claims are obviously the result of cultural illiteracy and historical ignorance, exacerbated and fanned by populist cultural nationalism, usually for the purpose of gaining political mileage by certain groups.

Such episodes of claims and counter-claims are not specific to Malaysia and Indonesia. Similar disputes occurred between Cambodia and Thailand over the jeeb dance gestures, and between Malaysia and Singapore over laksa, bakuteh, and Hainanese chicken rice (Chong, 2012, p. 4–5). The question is, why do such disputes gain currency in Southeast Asian countries? Furthermore, why are no mediating or corrective actions taken to repair these cultural misunderstandings?

The rise of nationalistic fervor in the era of globalization could very well explain the tensions and disputes arising from contestation over cultural symbols and products in Southeast Asia. Local political actors, often national governments, see cultural objects and symbols as unifying and rallying points.

UNESCO’s active promotion of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists generates robust interest among the cultural officials of many countries in having their own countries’ cultural heritage included in this globally recognized list. Indeed, enthusiasm for inclusion in UNESCO’s lists has led to and exacerbated various disputes among ASEAN member countries. Furthermore, with tourism now such a lucrative industry, and given the potential for local cultures to attract and boost tourism, claims to ownership of certain cultural products and recognition by UNESCO can represent a strategic move on the part of a country’s tourism promoters. A final point to be made in this regard is that as Southeast Asian economies have achieved more stable development in recent years, they have been able to draw on more resources for the promotion of their national heritage, raising the stakes significantly for all involved.

The Need to Promote Collective ASEAN Identity

It is our position that a collective ASEAN cultural identity must be promoted. We have three reasons to take this position:

1. Competing claims

2. Promotion of culture

3. Cultural literacy

Currently, ASEAN countries are failing to engage with and empower each other’s communities to promote the spirit of ASEAN-ness. Claims are answered by other claims; the capacity for songs and other cultural products to travel anywhere is ignored. We can say that cultural products are invincible cross-border travelers, but many fail to realize this.

In regard to UNESCO’s mandate to safeguard and promote the world’s intangible cultural heritages, Suryadinata (2005) reminds us that ASEAN’s cultural diversity is a unique “selling point” of the region. ASEAN should take bolder steps to facilitate historical and cultural dialogues in the spirit of regional interconnectivity, following the ASEAN Way. Decades since its establishment, ASEAN is still searching for a collective regional identity that could unites its member countries and promote its collective cultural traditions. Indeed, ASEAN’s 2000 Declaration on Cultural Heritage recognizes the collective responsibilities in developing, enhancing, and promoting the ASEAN identity through shared material culture and cultural items, as well as the history of member countries. More concrete initiatives need to be taken, and the political will of each of the national governments of the member countries is vital.

Suditomo et al. (quoted in Chong, 2012) have listed contested heritage items such as musical instruments, patterned fabric and cloth, dance, music and songs, weapons and instruments of war, ancient texts, foods and beverages, and puppetry. Obviously, songs should also be included in this category. Traditional and folk songs are eligible to be registered as Intangible Cultural Heritage of UNESCO, while other genres of songs can be registered as Intellectual Property, although this does not imply exclusive ownership by one specific party. Items registered as Intangible Cultural Heritage are discoverable and allowed to be appreciated and celebrated by society at large, including to be passed down through generations, as well as cross-communities (Chong, 2012, p. 31).

Folk songs belong to the public as collective memory that preserves the zeitgeist, or the collective outlook of the people or culture at this point in history. Their existence relies heavily on the ability of the community to conserve their memories in both written and unwritten expression. An example is found in an effort to immortalize the memory of a district in Singapore by attributing it to a popular song of the 1960s, “Di Waktu Petang di Geylang Serai” [An Afternoon at Geylang Serai] (Ismail, 2009). Geylang Serai is an ethnic quarter that has long been a heartland for Malay Muslim communities in Singapore. This historic district is also captured in another popular song titled “Geylang Sipaku Geylang”. In Indonesia, these songs are among the many folk songs that are sung by school children, including a version called “Gelang, Sipatu Gelang”, whose composer remains unknown.

According to the theory of identity fusion, recognition of such similarities should give rise to a sense of belonging and togetherness among members of a group, allowing for strong feelings of inter-connectedness while not necessarily diminishing any one group member’s integrity of self (Swann et al., 2012, p. 443). With broader and deeper cultural literacy, the ASEAN public should be enabled to see that common cultural genealogy and tradition are part and parcel of their cultural history and character. While nation-states possess fixed national boundaries, cultural products and practices do not recognize such boundaries. Instead, we see cultural traditions and practices spread throughout the region through human contact, migration and exchanges. These shared cultural conditions and experiences need to be made clear to the people of ASEAN; otherwise, disputes over cultural ownership will remain an obstacle to forging a common ASEAN cultural vision now and in the future.

When Popular Song Makes Regional Debut

In regard to cultural transfusion and transmission, it is interesting to see how contemporary songs that are popular in one country can also gain much popularity in another. Within ASEAN, it is not unusual for popular songs originating in one country to subsequently or concurrently become popular in other countries across the region. Among Malay-speaking countries within ASEAN, popular songs are commonly well received, be they broadcast over radio, recorded for karaoke, or performed in live concerts. Recently, we see popular chart-listed songs gaining acceptance and popularity beyond the traditional boundaries. The Indonesian band Bill & Brod with their song “Madu dan Racun” [Honey and Poison] is a case in point. Interestingly, as this song has become less popular in Indonesia, it has gained popularity all across Southeast Asia, being played and broadcast on various platforms and occasions. The song has been performed by Vietnamese street musicians using Vietnamese traditional music instruments, in the highly visited tourism destination of Ha Long Bay. The song’s lyrics have been translated into Khmer, Burmese, and Vietnamese. Already this song is commonly played in Malaysia, Southern Thailand, and Singapore, all of which have sizeable Malay-speaking communities.

According to The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music (Miller & Williams, 2017), Indonesia’s mainstream popular music draws on Western popular music for its simple melodies and rhythms made by contemporary musical instruments such as guitars and electric keyboards. These characteristics are displayed by the song “Madu dan Racun”, written and composed by Arie Wibowo (the lead vocalist of the group) and Jonathan Purba, released as the opening song of an album with the same title by the label of Ria Cipta Abadi Records, and performed by Bill & Brod in 1985 (Baihaqi, 2009). The song begins with a rather catchy tune and continues with witty lyrics for three and a half minutes, presented by the quintet of Arie Wibowo, Nyong Anggoman, Rully, Wawan Konikos, and Kenny Damayanti. The lyrics of the song express a man’s feelings of uncertainty about a woman’s mixed signals, which leave him clueless all the time (Miller & Williams, 2017):

Engkau yang cantik (You are so beautiful)

Engkau yang manis (You are so sweet)

Engkau yang manja (You are the lovely one)

Selalu tersipu (Always in shyness)

Rawan sikapmu (In your tender spirit)

Di balik kemelutmu (Behind your uncertainty)

Di remang kabutmu (In the haze of your doubt)

Di balik mega-megamu (Through the curtaining clouds of yours)

Ku melihat dua tangan (I see your two hands)

Di balik punggungmu (Behind your back)

Reff: (Chorus:)

Madu di tangan kananmu (You have honey in your right hand)

Racun di tangan kirimu (But poison in your left hand)

Aku tak tahu mana yang (I just couldn’t figure, which one)

Akan kau berikan padaku (That you will give to me)

The song was once very popular in Indonesia in the 1980s and 1990s, such that various singers and musicians performed it in diverse and experimental genres and styles. In addition to its musical qualities and meaningful message on a theme of universal interest among young adults, several factors can explain its popularity. Distribution via electronic media made it widely accessible. As people travel, songs and other cultural forms follow too. Internet and social media (Lysloff, 2003), have allowed the region to become inter-connected more than ever before. Today, several digital music platforms, including YouTube, have become increasingly popular with the digital-savvy young generation. Music streaming is the new trend, as more and more people replace recorded collections with digital music services like Spotify, Tidal and Apple Music with regular subscription programs providing unlimited access to all kinds of music. This new way of transmitting Southeast Asian culture in music throughout the region certainly has enormous prospects and potential.

Music in Southeast Asia can be considered further to be recognized under the concept of UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage, managed by ASEAN as the leading and binding agency for its member countries, with the aim of nurturing a sense of oneness at both official and popular levels among the peoples of the region. Indeed, much more can be done to harness the potential of the new way of cultural transmission and interaction, although those that have “evolved” naturally already demonstrate the efficacy and richness of cultural exchanges, affiliation, and appreciation. A truly organic ASEAN sorely needs such common cultural affinity among its peoples.

“Tak Tun Tuang”: A Regional Stardom

Another song that has drawn a tremendous response across the region is “Tak Tun Tuang” by Upiak Isil, a Minang pop singer originally from Bukittinggi, West Sumatra. Upiak gained popularity in Indonesia in 2017 when “Tak Tun Tuang” went viral due to Upiak’s unique and coquettish way of performing the song. The catchy song is written in both Bahasa Indonesia and Minangnese, with funny, flirtatious lyrics. Later in 2017, Upiak was invited to perform in an episode of the third season of D’Academy Asia, a pan-Asian dangdut singing competition. The show was aired by television stations across Southeast Asia and could be streamed live through the online streaming platform vidio.com. Upiak recorded her song under the Elta Record label of Bukittinggi, which belongs to the large Malaysian production and entertainment management company MVM.

While Upiak has recorded and produced other songs, “Tak Tun Tuang” remains her biggest hit. At first popular among the lower and middle classes of Indonesia, the song later gained popularity in Malaysia and Thailand. Unlike “Madu dan Racun”, “Tak Tun Tuang” was not translated but was sung casually by a Thai band while on tour, and also performed by a Thai marching band as well. From “laughing stock” to “mad hit”, Upiak rose to stardom as “Tak Tun Tuang” entered domestic and regional music charts (“‘Crazy People’ song now a ‘mad hit’”, The Star Online, 2017). The singer’s regional success indicated that her song had deeper meaning than that of pure entertainment, dismissing suggestions that Upiak was only selling craziness in today’s overly edgy entertainment world.

Although “Tak Tun Tuang” doesn’t have a specific meaning in any language, the song’s rhythm, tone and melody make it broadly appealing. The title phrase, a made-up phrase used by Upiak to improve the song’s flow and amuse listeners, seems to have the capacity to attract and hold listeners’ attention on a subconscious level. Here are the lyrics of the song (Isil, 2017):

Aku belum mandi (I haven’t showered)

Tak tun tuang, tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang, tak tun tuang)

Tapi masih cantik juga (But I still look gorgeous)

Tak tun tuang, tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang, tak tun tuang)

Apalagi kalau sudah mandi (If I had showered)

Tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang)

Pasti cantik sekali (Must be deadly gorgeous)

Kalau orang lain melihatku (If they see me now)

Tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang)

Badak aku taba bana (My make up is really thick)

Tak tun tuang, tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang, tak tun tuang)

Tapi kalau langsuang diidu (But try kiss or smell me)

Tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang)

Astaghfirullah baunya (God forbid, what a smell(!))

Kalau cowok ganteng yang lewat (A handsome guy passes)

Aku acuah je nyeh (I’ll ignore him)

Kalau apak gaek yang lewat (An older but cool man passes)

Aku aniang je nyeh (I’ll dismiss him (too))

Yang penting indak manggaduah (What’s important is that I’m)

urang (not bothering others)

Tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang)

Walau acok galak surang (Even when I’m laughing on my own)

Tak tun tuang, tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang, tak tun tuang)

Walau sangko urang awak dalang (You may think I’m crazy)

Tak tun tuang (Tak tun tuang)

Tapi hati Isil sanang (I don’t care as long as I’mhappy)

As Lysloff (2017) argues, this kind of music, a product of popular and mainstream music trends in Indonesia, with its relatable, realistic and intimate qualities and familiar beat, tone and arrangement, tends to be enjoyed by lower and middle classes as a “celebration” of their daily struggle. Simply put, the attraction to “Tak Tun Tuang” reflects cultural affinity and resemblance. As Nicolas (2019, p. 12) explains, the similarities among the musical forms and songs of the region can be traced back to ancient times when Austronesian, Austroasiatic, Tai-Kadai, Hmong-Mien, Mon-Khmer, and Sino-Tibetan settlers first began to move around and mingle in Southeast Asia. Hence, the commonalities of traditional musical forms, including some that persist today, represent one area where cultural affiliation is clearly manifest. For this reason, recognition within ASEAN of the region’s cultural commonalities should include a strong focus on music and songs.

Songs performed using similar musical instruments enable cross-cultural and inter-regional exchanges that transcend natural and modern-day political boundaries. Especially in today’s technologically connected world, we should avoid making claims to ownership of cultural products that are transmitted via digital platforms. Perhaps the Internet has changed the world into a more fluid and dynamic space, with fewer boundaries and attachments. We, too, receive musical and artistic influences from diverse parts of the world whose cultural products we consume, internalize and appropriate in the shaping of our own identities.

This brings us to an important point, which is the need for a call to preserve both traditional and popular music in Southeast Asia. Musical tradition and popular music culture are expressions of human creativity, and as such they deserve recognition as essential parts of our cherished cultural corpus, apart from their function as entertainment. Indeed, music can give philosophical, spiritual, and symbolic meaning to guide us in our search for understanding and appreciation of diversity in Southeast Asia. But even beyond these meanings, music and songs do travel.

Harnessing existing broadcasting networks and exchanges could facilitate and enhance the appreciation of cultural expressions across ASEAN. The 1980s television show Titian Muhibah provides an example. This was a cultural program initiated by Indonesia’s TVRI and Malaysia’s RTM, both state broadcasting stations. Titian Muhibah offered a platform for neighboring countries like Indonesia and Malaysia to explore the real meaning of being Serumpun, Senada, Seirama [People of the same racial and cultural genealogy, growing in the same rhythm]. The show aired cultural and art performances from both countries, along with shows of diplomatic camaraderie to promote cooperation and intimacy at bilateral level.

Another example of television’s capacity to facilitate and enhance cultural expression and exchange across ASEAN is provided by a weekly dangdut music contest for Southeast Asian talents, which aired for the first time in 2015 and ended in 2017 after three successful consecutive years. This talent-scouting show, broadcast by Indosiar, one of the major broadcasting stations in Indonesia, demonstrates the widespread appreciation of the dangdut genre across Southeast Asian. The aim of the show was to reintroduce and popularize dangdut once again as a musical genre that could bring everyone back to the dancehalls on a regional scale. The show attracted viewers from across the region and succeeded in engaging participants from most of the Southeast Asian countries. This was actually the offshoot of D’Academy, a music competition program which aired for the first time in 2014 and later grew into the most watched show in Indonesia. D’Academy Asia managed to gather best artists from across Southeast Asia to take part as judges, coaches, and commentators, such as Hetty Koes Endang, Pak Ngah, Sukree Mamagh, Hans Anuar, Eddy Misuari, Adibal Sahrul, Erie Suzan, Mayuni Omar, DJ Daffy, Jose Manuel, Soimah Pancawati, Saipul Jamil, Inul Daratista, Siti Nurhaliza, Rosalina Musa, Fakhrul Razi, Iis Dahlia, Caca Handika and many more.

Conclusion

Music and song have invariably demonstrated the universal value that enables individuals to express, as well as feel, close connection or relatedness. In Southeast Asia, we have encountered a dynamic development of cultural and historical ties that amplify the need for regional music recognition. Occasionally, we witness disputes over claims to ownership of particular cultural products, resulting in tension and conflict among the countries and peoples of ASEAN. The Indonesian and Malaysian contestations over cultural ownership of recent years reflect widespread cultural illiteracy and the political opportunism of certain groups and individuals.

In the context of regional efforts to harness the region’s diversity for the purpose of achieving solidarity and a state of oneness in ASEAN, at least in the cultural realm, recognition of cultural commonalities must be more strongly emphasized and highly appreciated. Greater cultural awareness, allowing for more robust flow, dissemination and interaction of ideas and cultural products, is required, so that we Southeast Asians can continue to reinvent and recreate the meanings and means of being Southeast Asians, by rediscovering our shared cultural heritage. We must emphasize our shared cultural heritage ardently, in a spirit of openness and solidarity, without allowing selfish and self-absorbed claims and accusations to be made against one another.

Cultural unity and diversity have always been a feature of our region. Upon closer examination, however, more cultural commonalities than we could have imagined reveal themselves to us. The cultural zones of Southeast Asia overlap: within the maritime part of the region, there is already great diversity; between the maritime and mainland parts of Southeast Asia there is more, and more complex, diversity still. Our cultural forms and products have always developed and evolved over time, but some basic features will always be recognizable, and the ongoing enhancement and expansion of the means of communication allows for ever greater accessibility and wider recognition of these features. Cultural domains where discursive space is developed could bring cultural workers and the public together to make sense of the cultural dynamics of their group, as well as their connections and affinity with those of neighboring countries. The task of this discursive front would be not only to facilitate the appreciation of cultural heritage, but also to educate the public in the reality and significance of cultural commonalities beyond national boundaries. The alternative to taking on this task and providing this education is to succumb to endless competing claims of ownership and authenticity of cultural heritage.

In other words, we need public education and socialization of the ideas that as a region we share much cultural heritage, even as we remain within our national territorial boundaries, and that our shared cultural heritage continues to evolve distinctively across the region. Moreover, the wisdom of the maxim “Live and let live” must be embraced and affirmed. In this regard, the evolution of cultural heritage due to people’s movements, activities and shared cultural history must be recognized as legitimate and authentic in its own right.

The understandings and principles described above should be allowed to direct the vision of cultural planners and policy makers. Music and songs are among the many cultural forms that can serve as channels of positive and effective exchange among Southeast Asian countries, with the understanding that their meaning goes beyond sentimental values and basic expressions of the sense of belonging. In addition, political will among the region’s state leaders is crucial to ensuring that due regard is given to the importance of achieving a deeper sense of regional belonging for the development of ASEAN. We hope that this preliminary research advocating for the investigation, appreciation and celebration of our shared cultural and historical identity with the goal of facilitating cooperation among ASEAN members can be developed and extended further in the future.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the warm and supportive contribution of researchers and lecturers from Universitas Indonesia, University of Malaya, and National University of Singapore through several dialogues, focus group discussions, interviews, and online meetings.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This work is supported by the International Collaborative Research Grant provided by the Directorate of Research and Community Engagement, Universitas Indonesia, year of 2019, managed by Dr. Ninny Soesanti Tedjowasono as the Research Team Leader, based on the research titled: “Enhancing the Spirit of ASEAN-ness to Strengthen ASEAN Cultural Pillar through Research of Communal Cultural Values of the Southeast Asian” (Contract Number: NKB-1914/UN2.R3.1/HKP.05.00/2019)

Notes on contributors

Linda Sunarti

Linda Sunarti, Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, Hanafi Hussin, Azhar Ibrahim, and Noor Fatia Lastika Sari are parts of a research team led by Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, which studied the dynamics of heritage and culture amongst Southeast Asian nations. Linda is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, while Noor is an associate lecturer in the same department and Ninny is from the Department of Archaeology of the same university. Hanafi is a professor at the University of Malaya, while Azhar is a senior lecturer in the Malay Studies of National University of Singapore. Linda studies the interrelation of the Malay world in the context of Southeast Asia, with specific focus in studying the cultural aspect of the relation between Indonesia and Malaysia, while Ninny specialises in Indonesian epigraphy and an active member of Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia (IAAI). Hanafi focuses his research in the anthropology of Southeast Asia, particularly on ritual and performing arts, Azhar specialises in religion and society, deviance and social control, sensory studies, as well as Malay studies in general, while Noor studies about the cross-borders issues and the maritime border between Indonesia and Australia.This research is a collaboration between scholars in three universities in the Southeast Asia region to enhance affinities in the spirit of enhancing ASEAN-ness.

Ninny Susanti Tejowasono

Linda Sunarti, Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, Hanafi Hussin, Azhar Ibrahim, and Noor Fatia Lastika Sari are parts of a research team led by Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, which studied the dynamics of heritage and culture amongst Southeast Asian nations. Linda is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, while Noor is an associate lecturer in the same department and Ninny is from the Department of Archaeology of the same university. Hanafi is a professor at the University of Malaya, while Azhar is a senior lecturer in the Malay Studies of National University of Singapore. Linda studies the interrelation of the Malay world in the context of Southeast Asia, with specific focus in studying the cultural aspect of the relation between Indonesia and Malaysia, while Ninny specialises in Indonesian epigraphy and an active member of Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia (IAAI). Hanafi focuses his research in the anthropology of Southeast Asia, particularly on ritual and performing arts, Azhar specialises in religion and society, deviance and social control, sensory studies, as well as Malay studies in general, while Noor studies about the cross-borders issues and the maritime border between Indonesia and Australia.This research is a collaboration between scholars in three universities in the Southeast Asia region to enhance affinities in the spirit of enhancing ASEAN-ness.

Hanafi Hussin

Linda Sunarti, Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, Hanafi Hussin, Azhar Ibrahim, and Noor Fatia Lastika Sari are parts of a research team led by Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, which studied the dynamics of heritage and culture amongst Southeast Asian nations. Linda is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, while Noor is an associate lecturer in the same department and Ninny is from the Department of Archaeology of the same university. Hanafi is a professor at the University of Malaya, while Azhar is a senior lecturer in the Malay Studies of National University of Singapore. Linda studies the interrelation of the Malay world in the context of Southeast Asia, with specific focus in studying the cultural aspect of the relation between Indonesia and Malaysia, while Ninny specialises in Indonesian epigraphy and an active member of Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia (IAAI). Hanafi focuses his research in the anthropology of Southeast Asia, particularly on ritual and performing arts, Azhar specialises in religion and society, deviance and social control, sensory studies, as well as Malay studies in general, while Noor studies about the cross-borders issues and the maritime border between Indonesia and Australia.This research is a collaboration between scholars in three universities in the Southeast Asia region to enhance affinities in the spirit of enhancing ASEAN-ness.

Azhar Ibrahim

Linda Sunarti, Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, Hanafi Hussin, Azhar Ibrahim, and Noor Fatia Lastika Sari are parts of a research team led by Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, which studied the dynamics of heritage and culture amongst Southeast Asian nations. Linda is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, while Noor is an associate lecturer in the same department and Ninny is from the Department of Archaeology of the same university. Hanafi is a professor at the University of Malaya, while Azhar is a senior lecturer in the Malay Studies of National University of Singapore. Linda studies the interrelation of the Malay world in the context of Southeast Asia, with specific focus in studying the cultural aspect of the relation between Indonesia and Malaysia, while Ninny specialises in Indonesian epigraphy and an active member of Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia (IAAI). Hanafi focuses his research in the anthropology of Southeast Asia, particularly on ritual and performing arts, Azhar specialises in religion and society, deviance and social control, sensory studies, as well as Malay studies in general, while Noor studies about the cross-borders issues and the maritime border between Indonesia and Australia.This research is a collaboration between scholars in three universities in the Southeast Asia region to enhance affinities in the spirit of enhancing ASEAN-ness.

Noor Fatia Lastika Sari

Linda Sunarti, Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, Hanafi Hussin, Azhar Ibrahim, and Noor Fatia Lastika Sari are parts of a research team led by Ninny Susanti Tejowasono, which studied the dynamics of heritage and culture amongst Southeast Asian nations. Linda is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, while Noor is an associate lecturer in the same department and Ninny is from the Department of Archaeology of the same university. Hanafi is a professor at the University of Malaya, while Azhar is a senior lecturer in the Malay Studies of National University of Singapore. Linda studies the interrelation of the Malay world in the context of Southeast Asia, with specific focus in studying the cultural aspect of the relation between Indonesia and Malaysia, while Ninny specialises in Indonesian epigraphy and an active member of Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia (IAAI). Hanafi focuses his research in the anthropology of Southeast Asia, particularly on ritual and performing arts, Azhar specialises in religion and society, deviance and social control, sensory studies, as well as Malay studies in general, while Noor studies about the cross-borders issues and the maritime border between Indonesia and Australia.This research is a collaboration between scholars in three universities in the Southeast Asia region to enhance affinities in the spirit of enhancing ASEAN-ness.