Phonological variation of [s] in Almahweet Yemeni Arabic: A sociolinguistic investigation of the Rural-Urban dichotomy

Abstract

This sociolinguistic study examines phonological variation in Almahweet Yemeni Arabic, specifically focusing on the production of the [s] phoneme among the urban modern class (UMC) and rural working class (RWC). Data was collected through sociolinguistic interviews with 48 speakers and analyzed using the Labovian quantitative analysis approach. The study employed descriptive analysis, inferential statistical techniques, and Spradley’s ethnographic analysis model to identify speech patterns, significant differences, and sociocultural context. Findings indicate that RWC participants use the sound [ṣ] more frequently, potentially as a marker of community connection. Age influences [s] variation, but social class does not show significant differences. This research contributes to knowledge about phonological variation in Almahweet Yemeni Arabic, emphasizing the value of the Labovian quantitative analysis approach. It sheds light on the intricate relationship between language, society, and phonological variation, paving the way for further exploration in this field.

Keywords:

• Correlation
• Labovian approach
• phonological variations
• Rural-Urban Dichotomy

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

This study explores how different social groups in Almahweet, Yemeni Arabic, pronounce the [s] sound. By analyzing interviews with 48 speakers from urban and rural backgrounds, the researchers discovered that the rural working class (RWC) tend to use the [ṣ] sound more frequently than the urban modern class (UMC). This variation in pronunciation may serve as a means of connecting with their community. The study also found that age influences the pronunciation of [s], while social class does not have a significant impact. This research provides valuable insights into phonological variation and its relationship with language and society in Almahweet, Yemeni Arabic. It highlights the importance of using quantitative analysis methods like the one employed in this study. These findings pave the way for further investigations in this field, deepening our understanding of language dynamics and contributing to cross-cultural communication.

1. Introduction

Sociolinguistics is a field that examines language variation within different speech communities, exploring how language use in social contexts reflects social variables and forces that influence language structure and mechanisms (Labov, 1966; Meyerhoff, 2018; Romaine, 2000; Suleiman, 2013). Labov, one of the pioneers in this field, quantified the dynamic nature of language change in society and identified social groups responsible for propagating linguistic changes (Labov, 1963, 1972, 1968, 1969, 2001, 2019).

This study makes significant contributions to the fields of sociolinguistics and phonology. It offers valuable insights into the specific phonological variation of the sound [s] in Almahweet Yemeni Arabic, enhancing our understanding of the intricate phonetic and phonological patterns present in different Yemeni Arabic dialects. This contributes to the broader field of Arabic dialectology and sociolinguistics by providing detailed information about the phonetic characteristics of a specific region.

This study adopts Labov’s quantitative approach to investigate phonological variation in a rural Yemeni dialect within the current landscape of language variation research. Specifically, the focus is on linguistic variation in the everyday speech of the Mahweet region in western Yemen. This study is significant as it will examine socioeconomic class as a factor in Yemeni linguistic variation, contributing to our understanding of linguistic and extralinguistic aspects within the Yemeni speech community.

Previous studies have explored various aspects of Yemeni Arabic dialects, but there has been no systematic study on Yemeni Arabic phonology (Peter Behnstedt, 2017; Jastrow, 1984; Abu-Haidar, 1994; Al-Shargi et al., 2016; Naïm-Sanbar, 1994; Behnstedt, 2006; Rubin (2018). Moreover, only a limited number of studies have utilized the Labovian quantitative approach in the study of Arabic, making this research crucial for a deeper comprehension of language trends and the factors influencing their usage (Labov, 1973; Trudgill & Trudgill, 1974; Macaulay, 1976; L. Milroy, 1980 among others).

The present study will investigate phonological variation in the spoken Arabic of rural Yemen, exploring variations in linguistic variables and their relationship with sociological variables such as age, gender. By building upon previous studies and shedding light on linguistic and extralinguistic aspects of language variation, this research will provide insights into the mechanisms that govern language variation within the Yemeni speech community.

It is important to note that the Yemeni speech community encompasses two dialects: Rural Arabic Dialect (RAD) and Urban Arabic Dialect (UAD), both of which are part of the community’s linguistic repertoire (Blom & Gumperz, 2000; Gumperz, 1964). The term “variety” is used in the sociology of language as a neutral designation to avoid prejudgment and to facilitate investigation of the phenomena at hand.

Political events can significantly impact language, particularly in the case of Yemen. The socioeconomic consequences of political instability and conflict can disrupt access to education and hinder social mobility, consequently influencing language use and proficiency. Individuals with limited educational opportunities or facing economic challenges may have restricted linguistic resources or exhibit different linguistic patterns compared to those with more opportunities for education and advancement.

In the Yemeni context, this study specifically focuses on the RAD spoken by rural residents in Mahweet. The aim is to investigate linguistic variations that have emerged as a result of the political events experienced by these two groups in the region. By employing the Labovian paradigm, this study seeks to explore linguistic variability in the speech of Mahweet city residents, allowing for the identification of macro patterns related to social identity factors and the examination of predictable and hierarchical changes in linguistic patterns (Myers-Scotton & Bolonyai, 2001). Through an examination of the impact of political events on language, this study aims to shed light on how linguistic variations arise and are shaped within specific sociopolitical contexts. By uncovering the complex relationship between political events, socioeconomic factors, and language use, this research contributes to our understanding of the broader sociolinguistic landscape.

In this way, this study aims to investigate phonological variation in a rural Yemeni dialect specifically on the production of the phoneme [s] among the UMC and the RWC using the Labovian quantitative approach. By examining the linguistic and extralinguistic aspects of language variation in the Yemeni speech community, this research fills a gap in previous studies on Yemeni Arabic dialects. Furthermore, it explores the influence of political events and socioeconomic factors on language use and proficiency. The findings of this study have the potential to enhance our understanding of language trends, factors conditioning their use, and the intricate relationship between language and sociopolitical contexts.

2. Literature review

2.1. Theoretical background

2.1.1. Sociolinguistic theory

Sociolinguistic theory has been a subject of interest in the field of linguistics for many years. This theory studies the variation of language across speech communities, and how social variables such as ethnicity and social class shape language structure and function. One of the pioneers in sociolinguistic theory, William Labov, argued that language is as dynamic as society and that linguistic change across social classes can be quantified (Bassiouney, 2020; Labov, 1966; Meyerhoff, 2018; Romaine, 2000).

Labov’s sociolinguistic theory contradicts the classic linguistic theory of Noam Chomsky, who believed that linguistic theory should only focus on an ideal speaker-listener in a homogeneous speech community (Chomsky, 1965). In contrast, sociolinguists emphasize the importance of linguistic variation and its inclusion in language studies. They argue that variation should be at the center of concerns, and that linguistic theory must be expanded to account for variance both within the speech community and within each speaker’s competence (J. Milroy & Milroy, 1989).

Labov’s variable rule mode, developed in 1969, is used to incorporate linguistic variation into generative grammar theory. The variable rule mode proposes that there are two categories of rules, obligatory and optional, that can be used to create an exhaustive grammar for a language. The frequency with which these rules are applied to an eligible string depends on specific linguistic and extralinguistic variables (Sankoff & Labov, 1979).

Sociolinguists also study linguistic changes and the various speech patterns of different communities. They believe that linguistic change can be observed and studied empirically and quantitatively. Labov suggests comparing the speech of two or three generations to find ongoing language changes (Guy et al., 1996). Linguists like Coupland and Trudgill have used linguistic analysis to study linguistic accommodation and its extent (Giles & Powesland, 1975; Giles et al., 1973).

Sociolinguistics has been defined as a discipline that studies the relation between language users and the social structures in which they live (Spolsky, 1998). Sociolinguists study language as a part of a nation, culture, or subculture, and how individual ways of speaking reveal membership in social groups (Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2021). The father of sociolinguistics, William Labov, observed the distribution of (r) in its social context in his study of “Martha’s Vineyard” and focused on the centralization process of the (ay) and (aw) diphthongs (Labov, 1966). In this way, sociolinguistic theory is an important field of study that explores linguistic variation across speech communities and the impact of social variables on language structure and function. Labov’s sociolinguistic theory has had a significant impact on the field, and sociolinguists continue to study linguistic changes and various speech patterns of different communities.

In addition, sociolinguistics has emerged as a rapidly developing field of linguistics, which focuses on studying language in its social and situational contexts. The field has been able to advance due to the development of field techniques that have allowed for greater access to a wider range of speech behaviors by live speakers (J. Milroy & Milroy, 1989). Sociolinguists are interested in revealing patterns of variation in speech communities by considering social differences such as socioeconomic class, age, and sex of the speaker. The study of linguistic variation in social contexts is a relatively new subject in linguistics that has gained increasing attention in recent decades (Trudgill, 2003).

The traditional interest in studying dialects as deviations from a norm or standard form of language has generated a new field of linguistic study called “dialectology” (Chambers & Trudgill, 1998). Scholars such as Müller (2021) argue that literary languages are artificial and that the natural life of language is in its dialects. However, the focus of linguistics has shifted to studying language use in social contexts, and sociolinguistics has become the field that investigates how language use varies across different social groups. In other words, sociolinguistics has emerged as a rapidly developing field of linguistics that focuses on studying language as it is used by real speakers in social and situational contexts. The study of linguistic variation in social contexts has gained increasing attention in recent decades, with sociolinguists revealing patterns of variation in speech communities based on social differences such as socioeconomic class, age, and sex of the speaker. While dialectology has traditionally focused on studying dialects as deviations from a norm or standard form of language, sociolinguistics investigates how language use varies across different social groups.

3. Quantitative studies in their social context

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in quantitative studies of sociolinguistics, with researchers using the Labovian approach to examine correlations between linguistic variables and extralinguistic variables. El Salman’s (2021) study of Palestinian dialects in Jordan found a strong correlation between variant use and extralinguistic variables based on one linguistic variable (Q), with age and gender strongly influencing this correlation. Similarly, Rajab (2021) studied the phonological variation in spoken Arabic from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia (Hijazi Arabic—HA) and Cairo, Egypt (Cairene Arabic—CA) and found that age, sex, educational level, and region affected it. Inusah (2016) studied Dagbani, spoken by Dagbamba people in Yendi, Tamale, and other Northern Region towns and villages and found that linguistic variables were highly correlated with all sociological parameters. Dashti (2018) investigated Kuwaiti Arabic’s sociolinguistic variation when switching from [ʧ] to [k] and found that the shift was driven by the prestige of the English language and Kuwaitis’ recent lifestyle change. Finally, Methias and Morsi (2020) quantified Egyptian Arabic, examining the correlation between social classes and the production of three long vowels in Colloquial Cairene Arabic.

These studies contribute to our understanding of language variation in social contexts and highlight the correlation between linguistic variables and extralinguistic variables such as age, gender, social class, and educational attainment. However, some of these studies have limitations, such as the small number of informants, limited age range, or lack of explanation for phonological diversity.

In light of these previous studies, a prospective study will examine rural Yemeni spoken Arabic’s phonological diversity using language variation research. The study will show variance in one linguistic variable in rural speakers’ natural and spontaneous daily speech, helping us understand the relationship between phonological variables and sociological variables. The study will focus on Mahweet, western Yemen, which is rural and diverse in terms of socioeconomic classes. Thus, this study will be the first to examine Yemeni linguistic variation and socioeconomic class.

4. Yemen’s linguistic situation

Yemen’s linguistic situation is characterized by its diversity and complexity, stemming from the presence of multiple variations of the Arabic language spoken within the country. The primary varieties of Arabic used in Yemen are Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which hold prominence in official institutions and formal contexts. However, the majority of Yemenis primarily communicate in one of the country’s numerous dialects, including Yemeni Urban Arabic (YUA), Yemeni Rural Arabic (YRA), and Yemeni Bedouin Arabic (YBA). These dialects exhibit notable phonological and lexical distinctions from MSA, posing challenges for the application of natural language processing (NLP) technologies to these particular Arabic variations (Al-Shargi et al., 2016).

The Yemeni dialects diverge in phonology, morphology, and lexicon, comprising a total of twenty mutually intelligible dialects spoken across the country. Although these dialects are closely related, it is worth noting that Mahra and Soqotra Island dialects are regarded as separate languages. Each dialect possesses its own unique linguistic features, such as variations in word pronunciation, the usage of specific particles or articles, and the incorporation of loanwords from Turkish or English. To illustrate, Al-Huri (2012) points out that Tehamis and Sana’anis utilize different definite articles when referring to the word “brunch” by employing the particles {ʔim-} and {ʔl-}, respectively, thereby exemplifying the subtle variations between dialects.

Throughout the Ottoman Empire’s rule, Turkish loanwords infiltrated Yemeni Arabic, particularly within the realms of administration, the military, clothing, and professions. Nevertheless, many of these loanwords have been replaced either by YUA terminology or English loanwords, primarily in urban areas. The prevalence of English in Yemeni society has grown since the implementation of mandatory English lessons in schools and institutions during the country’s unification in the 1990s (Ahmed & Pawar, 2018). Furthermore, English has recently permeated young adult fiction and is used alongside Arabic in television news broadcasts. Consequently, English loanwords have integrated into various semantic categories within Yemeni Arabic, encompassing domains such as cosmetics, technology, transportation, sports, food, and clothing (Ahmed & Pawar, 2018).

Such a discussion on Yemen’s linguistic situation in the literature review is highly justified due to its diverse and multifaceted nature. Yemen is known for its wide range of dialects, each with unique features and vocabulary. This linguistic diversity presents significant challenges for natural language processing (NLP) technologies, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of these variations in order to develop effective language processing tools.

Moreover, the influence of Turkish and English loanwords has played a pivotal role in shaping the evolution of Yemeni Arabic. These loanwords have made significant contributions to the language, both historically and in contemporary times. Examining and comprehending the linguistic aspects of Yemen provides researchers with valuable insights into the complexities of the country’s language landscape. It enables a deeper exploration of how Yemen’s linguistic diversity impacts communication patterns and language processing techniques. By gaining a thorough understanding of these dynamics, researchers can make well-informed decisions and devise strategies to effectively address the challenges associated with Yemen’s linguistic situation.

5. Methods

The present study aims to investigate phonological variation, specifically focusing on the production of the phoneme [s] in Yemeni Arabic as spoken by the UMC and RWC groups in Mahweet City, western Yemen. It seeks to explore this variation in relation to both linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. The objectives of the study include understanding the structured and rule-governed nature of linguistic variation in Arabic, exploring the impact of socio-political factors and historical background on language change, and analyzing the role of social parameters in shaping language variety in Yemeni society.

To achieve these objectives, the study employs a research design based on Labov’s quantitative analysis approach and a modern variation theory. This methodology has been widely recognized in sociolinguistics as a significant contribution to the field, and it has been successfully used by various researchers, including Trudgill and Trudgill (1974), Macaulay (1976), Macaulay et al. (1973), L. Milroy (1980), and J. Milroy and Milroy (2017). The selected methodological framework is derived from the pioneering work of William Labov in the field of linguistic variation and change.

The present study focuses on Mahweet City as the specific area of investigation. Mahweet City is located atop a small mountain in the central part of the district bearing the same name in western Yemen (Schmitz & Burrowes, 2017; Wilson, 1989). The city has a population of approximately 599,340 and covers an area of around 2,858 square kilometers (the free encyclopedia, 2022 https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q388280). To provide a comprehensive understanding of the linguistic environment in Mahweet City, it is crucial to take into account the intertwined Yemeni politics, historical background, and social customs. By thoroughly characterizing the area, including its social and ethnic composition, physical attributes, population size, and cultural aspects, this sociolinguistic study aims to capture the intricate nature of the context in which the language variation occurs. The geographic map displayed below provides a visual representation of the study area, Al-Mahweet City in western Yemen (See Figure 1).

Figure 1. Location of the Study Area (Almaweet, Yemen)

The study employs sociolinguistic interviews as the primary data collection technique, which are designed with specific modules to elicit responses related to the study variables and create a comfortable environment for participants to engage in discussions. These interviews are conducted in an open-ended format, allowing for in-depth exploration of the participants’ linguistic experiences. Prior to the interview, informed consent is obtained from the participants, and the interviews are recorded using a digital recorder to ensure accurate data capture (Labov 1972; Daher, 1998).

To select suitable informants, a judgment sampling method is utilized. Specifically, 48 Yemenis aged 18–60 from Mahweet City in west Yemen are chosen based on geographical and social boundaries. This approach aims to ensure a representative sample that captures phonological variations influenced by Yemeni dialects (Tagliamonte, 2006). To address the underrepresentation of females, which is a common challenge in sociolinguistic studies conducted in Arab societies, the “friend-of-a-friend” technique is employed. This technique leverages existing social connections to identify and include female participants in the study (See Table 1).

Table 1. Distributions of the Research Sample Population by Social Class

Social Class	Male	Female	Total
RWC	12	12	24
UMC	12	12	24
Total	24	24	48

Following the interviews, the recorded data is transcribed into written form, ensuring accurate documentation of participants’ responses. Additionally, a judgment test is designed to objectively evaluate the phonetic realization of the variables under investigation. These data collection techniques draw inspiration from Labov’s (1972 methodology as well as other relevant works such as Daher (1998), Wolfram and Fasold (1974) and Schütze et al. (2014), which have contributed to the field of sociolinguistics and offer valuable insights into data collection methods and analysis techniques.

For data analysis, descriptive analysis using percentages is employed to determine the usage of each linguistic variable by each participant. Inferential statistics, specifically T-tests, are used to identify significant differences in the frequencies and means of the target linguistic variables between the informants. Additionally, the study employs one-way ANOVA analysis to assess the significance of extra-linguistic variables, including occupation, education, gender, and social class. These data analysis techniques align with Labov’s quantitative approach and the methodologies utilized by other sociolinguists studying linguistic variation (See Table 2).

Table 2. The Distributions of the Variable (s) by social class

Variable (S)	Social Class				t	Sig
	RWC		UMC
	N 241	%	N 241	%	2.838	0.00*
[s]	4	1.65	16	6.6
[ṣ]	119	49	79	32.78

Furthermore, the study incorporates Spradley’s ethnographic analysis model and Miles and Huberman’s matrix to identify the linguistic domains and extra-linguistic factors that condition variation (Santosa, 2021). This analysis helps to explore the correlation between the phonetic realizations of the variables and social class as a sociological factor. Cultural themes are also analyzed within the situational and cultural context to provide an explanation for phonological variation in Yemeni Rural Arabic as it is spoken in Mahweet City.

6. Findings and discussion

6.1. Findings

The study entitled “Phonological Variation of [s] in Almahweet Yemeni Arabic: A Sociolinguistic Investigation of the Rural-Urban Dichotomy” focused on investigating the phonological variation of the sound [ṣ] in Yemeni Arabic, specifically in the region of Almahweet. The study found that the usage of the sound [ṣ] in Mahweet Arabic is influenced by the prevalent local variation of the sound [ṣ], and the RWC (rural working-class) uses it more frequently (49%) than the UMC (urban middle-class) (32.7%). A statistical analysis using SPSS revealed significant differences in the usage of the sound [s] between UMC and RWC.

The t-independent test yielded a t-value of 2.838 and a p-value of less than 0.00, indicating that UMC speakers tend to compress the sound [ṣ] in their speech. The proportion of the sound [s] in UMC was 6.6%, while in RWC, it was 1.65%. A visual representation of these findings is presented in Figure 2. Interestingly, the results showed that social class speakers, categorized as young, middle, and old, did not differ significantly in their usage of the sound [s]. However, younger speakers were found to use the sound [s] more frequently (See Table 3).

Figure 2. The Distribution of the Variable(s) by social media.

Table 3. The Distributions of the Variable (s) by gender

SC	Male		Female		F	t	Sig
	N= 241		N= 241		24.658	2.640	.000*
RWC	[s]	[ṣ]	[s]	[ṣ]
UMC	3	101	1	8
	9	55	7	24

Note: * Significant level at 0.05

Additionally, there were no statistically significant differences in the use of the sound [s] between UMC and RWC, with a statistical F value of .686 and a p-value higher than 0.05. This suggests that each social group has had an equal impact on shaping the communication patterns of informants from UMC and RWC. Table 4 provides further details on this point. Overall, the study provides valuable insights into the phonological variations in Mahweet Arabic and the influence of social class on language use.

Table 4. The Distributions of the Variable (s) by age

SC	Young		Middle		Old		df	F	Sig
	N = 241		N = 241		N = 241		2	.686	.505
	[s]	[ṣ]	[s]	[ṣ]	[s]	[ṣ]
RWC	1	43	2	54	1	22
UMC	7	33	4	28	5	18

Note: * Significant level at 0.05

The study’s taxonomy can be categorized into three parts: phonetics and phonology, sociolinguistics, and ethnography. The study aims to investigate the different ways in which the sound [s] is pronounced in Almahweet, which falls under the domain of phonetics and phonology. Additionally, the study examines how the pronunciation of [s] varies in rural and urban areas of Almahweet, which falls under the domain of sociolinguistics. Finally, the study employs Spradley’s ethnographic analysis model to investigate the sociolinguistic situation in Almahweet.

The componential analysis of the study can be broken down into three parts: phonological variation of [s], rural-urban dichotomy, and social factors. The study aims to investigate the different ways in which [s] is pronounced in Almahweet. It also examines how the pronunciation of [s] varies in rural and urban areas of Almahweet. Lastly, the study explores how social factors such as geographic location, age, and education influence the pronunciation of [s].

The study’s cultural themes are related to the Yemeni Arabic language and its sociolinguistic context. The pronunciation of [s] may be linked to an individual’s cultural identity and their sense of belonging to a particular community or region. In Yemeni Arabic, the pronunciation of [s] may vary across different regions of Yemen due to differences in dialects and local pronunciation norms. Education may also play a role in the way in which [s] is pronounced. Individuals with higher levels of education may be more likely to adopt standard pronunciation norms, as they may have received more exposure to formal language instruction. Conversely, individuals with lower levels of education may be more likely to retain their regional or local pronunciation norms. Finally, socioeconomic status may impact the way in which [s] is pronounced. Individuals with higher socioeconomic status may be more likely to adopt standard pronunciation norms, as they may have greater access to formal language instruction and opportunities to interact with individuals from different regions and social classes. On the other hand, individuals with lower socioeconomic status may be more likely to retain their regional or local pronunciation norms due to limited access to formal education and opportunities for social mobility.

7. Discussion

According to the research findings, there is a clear association between social class and the expression of certain linguistic variables, specifically [s], in informal Yemeni Arabic. The study’s outcomes provide compelling evidence to support this claim. The investigation revealed that the usage patterns of the linguistic variants [s] and [ṣ] differed significantly between the RWC and UMC. These differences were statistically significant.

When considering the variants [s] and [ṣ], it was observed that the RWC and UMC members employed these linguistic variables in distinct ways. The statistical analysis confirmed the significance of these variations. The results showed that the RWC and UMC had a considerable percentage of individuals using the variant [s] (1.65% and 32.78% respectively), while the variant [ṣ] exhibited significant usage among both classes (49% for RWC and 32.78% for UMC). Additionally, statistically significant differences were found for the usage of the variant [s] (4% for RWC and 6.6% for UMC).

Surprisingly, the UMC informants utilized the highly significant variant [ṣ] less frequently than anticipated, in contrast to the RWC informants. These findings align with previous studies that have explored the relationship between language variation and social class. The fact that the RWC informants, who belong to the same social class and share the same language, conform to consistent language use rules reinforces this notion.

An interesting linguistic characteristic associated with the rural working classes in Yemen’s Almahweet region is the alternative realization of the variable [s]. Meyerhoff’s (2018) research indicates that this linguistic variation is a persistent feature and shows no signs of disappearing. It is important to note that the evaluation of stable linguistic variations can vary depending on the social interaction and the participants involved, as Bourdieu (1990) suggests. On the other hand, for the UMC, the lengthening of vowels serves as an example of a vernacular linguistic feature. This characteristic is predominantly associated with individuals from the RWC backgrounds or those residing in rural areas. Consequently, the UMC tend to perceive this linguistic attribute negatively, while individuals from other working classes may view it more favorably, as noted by Bourdieu (1990).

In this regard, the English variable [ing] demonstrates linguistic stability and is considered a constant feature of the language (Wagner, 2012). In literature from the 18th and 19th centuries, authors used variations in the frequency of [n] and [ɪŋ] sounds to portray the social status of their characters, highlighting class distinctions (Mugglestone, 2003). The consistent shift towards the velar [ɪŋ] in deliberate or formal speech, associated with an “outgroup,” provides significant evidence supporting the preference for the nasal [ɪŋ] over the alveolar variety. Studies have consistently shown that individuals from working-class backgrounds tend to favor the unconventional and less prestigious [n] variant (Campbell-Kibler, 2005; Fischer, 1958; Holmes & Wilson, 2017; Kerswill, 1987; Labov, 1966; Trudgill & Trudgill, 1974). The alternation between [n] and [ɪŋ] has served as a significant indicator of social position for many decades (Labov, 1972; Wardhaugh and Fuller, Trudgill & Trudgill, 1974) distinguishes between social markers and indicators, with markers being linguistic features that carry social value and are recognized by speakers of a particular dialect. In contrast, indicators lack social significance and are typically only identified by linguists.

Furthermore, Trudgill & Trudgill (1974) found that New York City’s lower working classes were stereotypically associated with a pronunciation lacking the letter “r.” However, the rate of [h] dropout was lowest among informants from West Yorkshire and Norwich, who belonged to the upper social classes. Another study by Poplack & Walker (1986) provided evidence that Montreal French speakers from lower socioeconomic backgrounds omitted the/l/sound from certain pronouns, linking this deletion to social factors.

The usage of [s] variants reveals significant variations between the RWC and the UMC, indicating a distinct class hierarchy within the Mahweeti linguistic community. These findings align with earlier studies that have demonstrated broader stratification in the stable (ing) variation of British English (Norwich) compared to North American English varieties ((Meyerhoff, 2018; Labov, 1966; Trudgill & Trudgill, 1974). The patterns of recognizing the [n] or [ɪŋ] variants of the variable exhibited notable differences between social groups in Norwich, regardless of the speech style employed (casual interview, reading word lists, or passages). The availability of more social class mobility in the United States compared to Britain may potentially explain the observed differences between the two countries. Nevertheless, it was observed that the patterns of variation application, as mentioned earlier, were nuanced, particularly between the North American upper working class (UWC) and lower middle class (LMC).

The RWC in Yemen faces economic difficulties that hinder social advancement, leading to pronounced social stratification in the way they produce variations of the [s] sound. Bassiouney & Walters (2020) highlight that the RWC constitutes a distinct speech community with its own norms, attitudes, and linguistic behaviors. In contrast, the UMC informants from Almahweet are knowledgeable and respected, but they still frequently produce stigmatized linguistic variations.

Socioeconomic mobility is limited in Mahweeti, Yemen, resulting in challenges for individuals to find suitable employment based on their abilities. Graduates often end up working as shop or waitress assistants due to the scarcity of job opportunities. It has been observed that wealthy traders who were originally part of the RWC, such as butchers and owners of large businesses, continue to adhere to the linguistic norms of their speech community even after moving to better neighborhoods or new compounds. This attachment to their linguistic patterns may be attributed to factors such as self-identity, developmental influences, or the critical period hypothesis related to brain development and language acquisition (Meyerhoff, 2018).

Wealthy traders who originated from the RWC show a strong sense of ownership and community, which deters them from leaving their areas. This reluctance to relocate is supported by the observations of Fried (1963), as cited in Milroy & Milroy (2017), who found that individuals in Boston’s West End felt uneasy in supermarkets and hospitals when they moved away. Similarly, Boal, Wiener, and L. Milroy, as mentioned by Milroy & Milroy (2017), describe working-class neighborhoods in Belfast as closely knit, considering the community an extension of their homes. This pattern is also evident in the working-class areas of Amahweet, where residents have a strong attachment to their towns despite limited social mobility.

The linguistic variations of [s] exhibit extensive stratification within the population of Amahweet. A one-way ANOVA analysis revealed that non-linguistic factors influence how the two social classes vary their usage. Age does not significantly impact the usage of [s] variations among the UMC and RWC informants. The UMC informants, regardless of age, tend to have higher education, successful careers, and reside in respectable neighborhoods or communities. In contrast, RWC informants have limited education, live in close-knit quarters, and have restricted access to books, travel, and social clubs. Their interactions and activities primarily occur within their social networks and independently.

The interplay between language behavior, social context, close social networks, and daily activities contributes to the formation of social classes. Social stratification is reflected in the range of languages used and the typical linguistic behavior within these social strata. Individuals within the same social class tend to exhibit similar linguistic patterns, as each class possesses its distinct range of linguistic variables (Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2021).

8. Conclusion

This study aims to fill the gap in knowledge on the connection between social stratification and language diversity in the Arab world, with a focus on the Almahweet region of Yemen. Through an examination of the speech of individuals from the upper-middle class (UMC) and rural working class (RWC), who represent opposite ends of the social hierarchy, this study uncovers the social class distinctions that are reflected in colloquial Mahweeti Arabic. The results demonstrate the significant role of social class as a non-linguistic factor in shaping the linguistic forms used by members of the speech community. Further research can build on these findings by exploring additional phonological features and the impact of intermediate social classes on language use in society. Additionally, this study may prompt additional acoustic research into the phonological and morphological conditions that contribute to linguistic variations and other aspects of this phenomenon.

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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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Ali Mohammed Saleh Al-Hamzi

Ali Mohammed Saleh Al-Hamzi is an exceptional scholar renowned for his profound expertise in teaching and research. With an illustrious career spanning numerous years, he has garnered extensive recognition for his invaluable contributions to the field of linguistics. His groundbreaking work in translation, critical discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, and applied linguistics has left an indelible mark on the discipline. Driven by an insatiable curiosity, he continually seeks to broaden his intellectual horizons, constantly pushing the boundaries of knowledge. With an unwavering dedication to academic excellence, Ali Mohammed Saleh Al-Hamzi stands as an invaluable asset to the scholarly community.