Assessing the efficacy of augmented reality in enhancing EFL vocabulary

Abstract

Augmented reality (AR) has drawn interest in education because AR helps learners practice real-life experiences during their learning. AR describes the process of adding computer-generated perceived data to the physical surroundings to generate an interactive experience. Implementing AR in developing vocabulary impacts English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ capacity to master a language. The present study aims to determine the effects of AR in developing vocabulary learning using a mixed-method design to collect the data. The participants of the study were 95 male EFL learners from Common First Year students of Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University (PSAU). The instruments used in the study were pretest, post-test, delayed post-tests, and semi-structured interviews. T-Test was used to analyse the data from the pretest, post-test and delayed post-test. The results revealed that AR helped learners develop their vocabulary skills. The learners also demonstrated positive perceptions of the implementation of AR in vocabulary learning.

Keywords:

• Augmented Reality
• EFL
• Vocabulary

1. Introduction

The prevalence of internet service on portable devices in the past decade has become inevitable as smartphones assist learners in various ways. The evolution of technology has also enhanced educational activities, given that digital technological advancements are gaining momentum in everyday life owing to the availability of different apps and the prevalence of devices with touchscreens in the education system (Khan, Ali, & Alourani, 2022). Educators are looking into the usefulness of devices to enhance language instruction. Implementing mobile phone learning (M-learning/MALL) is perceived as one of the most effective education methods (Ali et al., 2022). This method has been fostered in the last two years to deliver, obtain, instruct, and monitor students’ performances. Students can send and receive course-related material through M-learning.

The development of education and technology offers an increased integration of mobile technology into all facets of their lives, and new and innovative approaches to education are being developed to take advantage of this trend (Kumar et al., 2018). AR is an emerging technology on portable devices that combines digital content like graphics, audios, and videos (Garzón, 2021). Due to the popularity of AR, there are more options for its implementation in instructional settings besides advertising, sports, and leisure activities, given the ability to combine a virtual experience with reality made feasible by AR (Hantono et al., 2018). By using realistic sensory stimuli, practitioners can study in engaging computer-generated settings.

It has enabled individuals to set AR to aid learning since it improves students’ understanding compared to other instructional resources. The ability of AR to merge the physical world with the virtual environment to produce an enhanced reality opens up new opportunities for instruction (AlKhunzain & Khan, 2021; MacCallum & Parsons, 2019; Papanastasiou et al., 2019; Parmaxi & Demetriou, 2020; Wedyan et al., 2022), and new ways to enhance vocabulary learning through this technology. There has been a discussion concerning the efficacy of AR among Foreign language (L2) learners in various countries, and several studies (Alzahrani, 2020; Lu & Liu, 2015; Wu et al., 2013) highlighted the benefits of AR in engaging students in learning. These benefits include students’ interaction, engagement, and increased motivation since vocabulary learning abilities foster the inclusion of such elements in instruction. Additionally, AR applications enhance interactions between learners and their instructors.

Using virtual aspects in learning environments increase the retention of words; hence, AR may present a better understanding of vocabulary learning among EFL learners. Creative AR learning environments enable individuals to participate actively in learning experience (Alkhattabi, 2017). The benefit of introducing real-world learning scenarios into classroom settings gives students a chance to communicate meaningfully. EFL learners who frequently struggle with productive skills like speaking are more interested in M-learning in education, which offers various possibilities and benefits.

Contrarily, other studies (Mahadzir & Phung, 2013; Pucihar & Coulton, 2015) reported that some students face more practicality concerns as they deem AR hard to use in educational settings. Foreign language students often need more concentration and enthusiasm in classroom engagement due to the employment of the same tasks and learning resources provided by publishing companies or faculty members (Kanno & Stuart, 2011). Therefore, AR aids students in visualizing intricate relationships throughout a lesson, and vocabulary can enhance the learners’ understanding of FL. Although publishers and language instructors offer students audio-visual interface resources in EFL classes, these resources usually prevent them from interacting with one another, participating in activities, and relishing their active learning. Learners can experience rich, authentic, interactive, and context-experiential learning through the integration of AR learning materials in various learning activities (Akçayır & Akçayır, 2017).

Students acquiring a foreign language may enhance their interest since they are inclined to view interactive resources as real-world situations. Verbal interactions with their peers help learners to reduce anxiety among these students. Through interaction, engagement, and fun, AR as a component of M-learning is an active learning that can aid learning effectively (P. Chen et al., 2017).

Due to the complex nature of vocabulary development, and the large spectrum of lexical units, and word forms, it has become challenging to conceptualize learning or acquire vocabulary using a single theory or approach. Schmitt (2010) confirmed this assertion by adding, “it is a frequent observation that no theory exists which can serve as the foundation of vocabulary instruction”. Other studies proposed theories on vocabulary learning, including the parasitic model of vocabulary acquisition (Hall, 2002), the Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2006), and digital vocabulary activities (Meara, 2012). Computer models of vocabulary acquisition are promising, although their application in vocabulary learning is still relatively new.

Several studies about the introduction of mobile AR in various educational contexts for language acquisition (Parmaxi & Demetriou, 2020), focus on how elementary and college students adopted AR in their learning habits. Further in-depth research is required to determine how well mobile augmented reality might boost student engagement and vocabulary growth in the EFL context (Lau & Wen, 2021). Our study attempts to fill this gap by analyzing the influence of mobile AR on vocabulary learning of elementary-level EFL university students.

2. Literature review

Vocabulary impacts the EFL learners’ capacity to master the language. Reading, writing, listening, and speaking are the four fundamental skills that language students ought to learn. However, it is exceptionally challenging to master these skills without sufficient vocabulary to convey a message (Zhang et al., 2011). Additionally, adequate vocabulary is necessary to learn a foreign language (I. S. Nation & Webb, 2011). One can practice vocabulary using group-based and individualized activities using implicit and explicit methods. The mechanics of word learning, pronunciation, and interpretation are addressed in vocabulary instruction (Webb & Nation, 2017). According to I. Nation (2006), EFL students need to understand at least 5000 words to comprehend the message of an English text. Various teaching techniques and approaches, including the employment of L1 to L2 in vocabulary instruction, introducing vocabulary by reading, and teaching contextualised and decontextualised vocabulary, have been researched to determine their efficacy (Khan et al., 2018; Schmitt & Schmitt, 2020; Schmitt, 2008; Webb, 2005). For instance, vocabulary is vital in a Saudi EFL environment because Saudi culture is an auditory rather than a written culture (Hassan Taj et al., 2017),hence, people tend to communicate orally than in written forms. Consequently, learners need more efforts to grasp vocabulary.

Over the past two decades, Computer applications has become widespread for language learning (Ali et al., 2023; Allum, 2004; Shahbaz & Khan, 2017). The communication and social features of smartphones, Personal computers, and tablets could help EFL students to enhance their language skills (Ahmad et al., 2017; Fageeh, 2013). Meanwhile, applications for mobile phones like WhatsApp, Snapchat, Edmodo, and media platforms may present new opportunities for EFL students. Adopting multimedia in vocabulary teaching has produced promising findings highlighting the usefulness of a holistic approach to vocabulary acquisition. For example, Hasram et al. (2021) investigated the impact of online gaming on vocabulary learning. The control group learned the same content on paper in the study, while the experimental group engaged in online vocabulary exercises. The study revealed that the experimental group performed better than the control group. Comparatively, Shahbaz and Khan (2017) reported the impact of technology-enhanced language learning on the vocabulary development of EFL learners in Saudi Arabia. They used mobile devices in the experiment to learn vocabulary. Students received multi-glossed vocabulary cards through the WhatsApp app, whereas the study was conducted through vocabulary acquisition activities distributed through computers. The study also reported that the treatment group performed noticeably better than the control group.

On the other hand, Xu (2010) discovered that labelled videos used to teach vocabulary produced impressive outcomes. In the Saudi Context, several studies devoted to computer-assisted vocabulary learning highlighted the importance of technology in language learning (Alhadiah, 2020; Ali Mohsen, 2016; Fageeh, 2013). Additionally, other studies demonstrated that young learners could understand new language applications with social media support (Khan, 2022; Khan, Ali, & Alouraini, 2022). According to Shahbaz and Khan (2017), vocabulary learning apps on dynamic tablet computers may improve children’s pronunciation and vocabulary. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of M-learning was realised by learners with the assistance of adult companionship or peers. Hence, the involvement of teachers alongside language applications could generate significant results.

3. AR in EFL

Due to the pervasiveness of mobile technology, many students possess smart devices that enable gathering, organisation, transmission, retention, and display of information via various Internet contexts. Mobile devices have evolved into an important element of the current generation’s everyday activities, thus, having been incorporated into educational settings worldwide. This innovation has impacted the provision and production of teaching materials because it can aid learning in a great variety including generating and utilising knowledge, teaching delivery, and using other apps in classes (Parmaxi & Demetriou, 2020; Godwin-Jones, 2016).

AR is a term used to describe a broad category of advanced technologies that transpose computer-generated components such as texts, images, sound, or multimedia to create a composite view from a user’s perception (Wu et al., 2013). Some scholars highlighted that AR has three main characteristics: (a) a mixture of physical and digital worlds, (b) real-time engagement, and (c) precise three-dimensional (3D) authorisation of virtual and physical objects (Carmigniani & Furht, 2011; Rauschnabel et al., 2022). AR is an active engagement that combines virtual elements with natural sensations. Several studies illustrated the participants’ eagerness to interact in AR immersive environments, wherein respondents have greater enjoyment and seem enthusiastic to replicate the AR exercise (Alzahrani, 2020; Parmaxi & Demetriou, 2020; Wedyan et al., 2022). According to scholars, there is a strong connection between AR technology and academic motivation.

Several vocabulary study experiments have examined the effects of AR on EFL students (Santos et al., 2016; Tsai, 2020). For instance, He et al. (2014) investigated the impacts of AR on EFL vocabulary among preschool children. The authors created a cellphone software for the EFL students in which vocabulary was presented as a series of virtual images blended with phrase definitions and phonetics. The study involved pre-post tests and an interview with the instructor. They indicated that the AR group performed better than the control group regarding post-test scores and engagement levels. However, a few participants were distracted during the study due to possessing a cell device. Likewise, Hsu (2019) compared AR learning platforms for third-grade students to acquire new English vocabulary from textbook; one focused on a collaborative game-based (CGB) system and the other on a sequential-mission gaming (SMG) structure. Given the advantages of AR gaming patterns, which benefits conferred with an exciting and engaging environment, both systems proved extremely successful for learning. Most of these studies focused on native learners attending either primary or elementary school. Moreover, these investigations should have included a word list and a study in the EFL context is also imperative.

S.-Y. Chen et al. (2018) created a game-based education system with AR technology that was utilised with 46 learners of an elementary school. The findings indicated greater vocabulary improvements due to the implementation of an interactive and fully-immersive AR technology-based method. Also, Solak and Cakir (2015) examined the impacts of AR on the vocabulary of undergraduate EFL learners in Turkey, but solely on preschool EFL learners. The results demonstrated the benefits of AR on students’ academic achievement and motivation.

The other hand, R. W. Chen and Chan (2019) investigated how vocabulary learning with AR flashcards affected early childhood schooling, and they came to remarkably different conclusions. The experimental group used conventional flashcards, while the control group used AR flashcards. According to their findings, the efficacy of AR on vocabulary acquisition was not significantly distinct in the two groups; however, individuals in the experimental group displayed greater curiosity than the ones in the control group. Recently, Yilmaz et al. (2022) used AR technology to examine children’s vocabulary development, the levels of engagement, and perspectives on learning the English language. The authors concluded that word learning substantially increased immediately following AR adoption but that the effects started to fade on delayed post-test. This research has demonstrated how effective vocabulary education in EFL instruction can be increased through AR-supported methodologies and tools. It allows students to engage with virtual items and scenarios in actual locations, making the learning process more interesting and immersive. Moreover, AR can help learners become more motivated, pay better attention, and remember new terminology faster.

Additionally, Tsai (2020) compared the conventional lecture approach and the AR method in vocabulary learning and achievement among 42 students in primary school using a mixed-methods study. The results disclosed that students who utilised AR technology had higher test scores. Thus, the adoption of AR in language teaching might improve students’ vocabulary understanding and retention.

On the other hand, technology integration helped an experimental group to establish favourable outcomes on the self-efficacy, motivation, and autonomous learning scales. Based on the aforementioned, AR assists EFL students in acquiring language knowledge within a supportive atmosphere. Another study by Binhomran and Altalhab (2021) investigated the digital competencies of vocabulary development in the Saudi EFL context. The research aimed to examine the use of AR in EFL vocabulary instruction by assessing young learners’ engagement and vocabulary memorisation. The study implemented two tools: a pre-post-delayed test and a follow-up interview. The respondents (N = 73) were sixth-grade learners from a primary school. The findings indicated mean score differences in favour of the AR groups. According to the research findings, AR improved understanding and increased learner excitement. The investigation also emphasised the impacts of technology on language acquisition.

4. Theoretical construct

To fulfil the requirements of individual learners or students, information must be provided in a wide range of formats. Several theories emphasise the importance of the use of technology in vocabulary learning. AR is generally in agreement with the constructivist and situated learning theory since it positions students in an actual physical and social context while facilitating, directing, and enabling metacognitive and collaborative student learning, such as reciprocal teaching, realistic inquiry, engaged observation, and cooperative learning (Dunleavy & De de, 2014). Likewise, AR enhances the efficacy of teaching methods, given that it depends mainly on the visualisation and reality of notions; consequently, it improves student participation by allowing them to investigate complexities or abstract ideas (Wedyan et al., 2022).

On the other hand, the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) theory partially suits the current study. According to CTML, students’ comprehension appears more effective using images and words than simple words (Mayer, 2014). This finding was valuable for academics; because even if AR techniques are not implemented, instructors still need to teach learners ingeniously. For instance, teaching words using the classic flashcard method benefits the learners because they receive a textual definition and a pictorial illustration and listen to the description. On the other hand, using an AR method enhances the CTML concept. Learners can be introduced to textual, visual, and audio information. However, they can also integrate their knowledge into a gaming scenario, previous knowledge, a 3D setting, or a new visual setting and experience. Subsequently, using an AR method to teach vocabulary enables direct instruction of new content. It aids students in deducing the meaning of the words by linking the current concept to a location in their AR world.

According to Lu and Liu (2015), the innovation of AR technology can interest students and encourage them to take an active role in their education. This study also suggests that AR can boost students’ desire to learn. Supported by AR technology, 3D stereoscopic pictures may be superimposed in the right places, giving learners a more immersive learning environment (Akçayır & Akçayır, 2017). This approach can increase students’ engagement with the instructional content compared to traditional learning environments (Tsai, 2020), boosting the learning quality of relevance.

With AR, learners will view and hear phrases in context and be allowed to connect this new content to serve their thought processes better. AR is now influencing courses and the classroom environment in contemporary society. Therefore, this study aims to establish a connection between using the AR teaching technique and students’ vocabulary learning, seeking to answer the following questions:

1. How does AR impact the vocabulary learning of EFL learners?

2. What are the Saudi students’ perceptions of AR in developing vocabulary learning?

5. Methodology

The study aims at exploring the efficacy of VR in developing vocabulary. A mixed-method approach (quantitative and qualitative) was employed to investigate the benefits of AR to EFL students expanding their vocabulary. The quantitative data was acquired through a vocabulary test, and qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews. A pre-posttest and an interview in a quasi-experimental design were carried out, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Research design.

6. Participants

In total, 95 Saudi male elementary-level EFL students of Prince Sattam Bin Abdul Aziz University participated in this study. To date, in most Saudi universities male teachers teach male students and female teachers teach female students. Moreover, there are separate campuses for male and female students. Since the researcher did not have the choice to choose female learners because of administrative constraints, only male participants were included in the experiments. All the participants are the native Arabic speakers aged 17 and 21 years old. As Preparatory year students they must study English for two semesters to join their major in the university. The study comprised, a control and an experimental groups. The participants were randomly selected to be placed into each group, whereby the AR group consisted of 48 participants, while the control group had 47. There were initially 99 respondents in this study, but since four did not participate in the extended post-test, their data were excluded from the final data analysis.

7. Instruments

A vocabulary test served as a pre-and post-test in the present study. The test was designed based on Laufer and Nation’s (1999) vocabulary test. The test consisted of 20 fill in blanks items. Based on the format of the original test, the letters of words were given as hints to help them guess the correct word. The same test was administered as a post-test and a delayed post-test. However, the items of the tests were shuffled each time.

Following the tests, semi-structured and open-ended interviews were conducted. Implementing the qualitative approach was more beneficial because adequate evidence and interpretations are necessary to assess the study objectives. The respondents’ perspectives on adopting AR technology in vocabulary acquisition were evaluated to determine whether it could produce a conducive atmosphere for EFL learning. Face-to-face interviews in English were audiotaped for statistical reasons.

8. Procedure

At the start of the experiment, all the participants were given a list of 300 words extracted from Oxford 3000 words list, and they were asked to identify the words they did not know. Eighty words that 90% of participants marked as unfamiliar were chosen for the treatment procedure. The control group was taught the words by guessing the meaning from the context using sentences as examples and word meaning matching as part of the two coursebook teaching technique. These words were presented as PowerPoint slides following the reading activities. The learners were taught around eight words in 2 hours of reading activities performed in class twice a week. After completing a 40 words learning, a short quiz was conducted to assess the vocabulary retention procedure.

Afterwards, the experimental group was taught the same 80 words through five virtual field trips chosen and edited by the researcher to insert the related vocabulary item of the Nearpod’s Virtual field trips used to implement the AR technology in this study. The virtual field trips were supported by the cards created with the help of slide share tool in the virtual trips, and they included the meaning of the words, images, parts of speech, and different contexts of the words. With the help of Nearpod’s VR field trips, teachers can transport the pupils to any part of the world from their classroom. The virtual field can be assessed in smartphones, tablets, laptops, and computers. A demonstration was performed and participants were asked to join the Nearpod virtual trips in the smartphones. Students were given a code to join the Nearpod and start testing the tool to learn vocabulary. For each session, a specific link was provided to the students. After a brief introduction, the AR-based course’s multimedia components were made available to the participants, and the vocabulary was structured with the relevance to the virtual trip. Figure 2 illustrates an example of a vocabulary card.

Figure 2. Vocabulary Card.

At the end of the fifth-week experiment, both groups were subjected to a post-test. Then, nine participants from the AR group were selected for the interview. The participants who had completed 90 per cent of the virtual trips were allowed to share their views on the experiment. Convenience sampling was used to select the participants for the interviews. Lastly, three weeks after the post-test, a delayed post-test was administered to all participants of both groups.

9. Data analysis

Qualitative and quantitative data were obtained for this study. The student’s post-test and delayed post-test grades were used as quantitative data. The instrument was validated on a similar sample group a week before the experiment to guarantee the tests’ validity. T-test was performed to analyse the vocabulary test of the participants from both groups. The test results were examined using the statistical analysis tool SPSS. The participant’s scores were subjected to a descriptive statistical analysis involving both cohorts’ numerical analysis.

Additionally, the interview data from the nine AR group participants were used for qualitative analysis. All interview sessions were audiotaped, transcribed, and reviewed. The transcribed data was given to two instructors to check the accuracy of the data. Thematic analysis was employed to analyse the data obtained from the interviews to strengthen the study’s accuracy based on the discussions (Terry et al., 2017).

10. Pretest

An independent samples T-test was performed to determine the statistical variances in the means scores of the pretest scores for the two groups (control and experimental). Table 1 reveals no statistically substantial differences between the AR and control groups’ pretest scores (t = 0.864, df = 94, p = 0.391), suggesting that the vocabulary knowledge among the members of both groups was equivalent before the deployment of the AR experiment. The results show that both groups had a similar vocabulary level before the intervention.

Table 1. T-test result of the pretest

Groups	N	Mean	SD	Std. error mean	T-test	df	Sig.
Control	47	13.36	1.748	0.351	0.864	94	0.391
AR	48	14.01		0.319

11. Post-test

The post-test results were also analysed using independent samples T-test to check the differences in the means of the pretest scores for the two groups (control and experimental). Table 2 illustrates the findings extracted from the participants’ vocabulary post-test. The results indicated that the mean values of the two groups were statistically different. The control group’s mean score was 15.27, whereas the experimental AR group achieved a better mean score of 19.81. These variations were statistically significant (t = 0.689, df = 94, and p = 0.012). The P value was < 0.05 indicating the improved results of the AR group. Similarly, the control group also displayed some improvement in vocabulary development which can explained by the inclusion of images in the flash cards.

Table 2. T-test result of the posttest

Groups	N	Mean	SD	Std. error mean	T-test	df	Sig.
Control	47	15.27	1.128	0.269	0.689	94	0.012
AR	48	19.81		0.271

12. Analysis of delayed post-test

The deferred post-test results of the vocabulary mastery of the two groups were evaluated using a T-independent samples test (Table 3). The analysis demonstrated the differences in the outcomes of the two groups, with the experimental group producing an overall mean of 15.81, higher than that of the control group, 14.27. However, this variation did not meet the criteria for statistical significance (t = 0.672, df = 94, p = 0.282). Therefore, the delayed post-test outcomes for both groups exhibited comparable vocabulary retention levels. This asserts that a prolonged intervention of AR is required for vocabulary retention.

Table 3. Results of the delayed post-test

Groups	N	Mean	SD	Std. error mean	T-test	df	Sig.
Control	47	14.27	1.1098	0.259	0.672	94	0.282
AR	48	15.81		0.263

13. Qualitative analysis

The interview responses were coded and distributed by topics and reviewed according to the coded data. The topics were quantified based on positive and negative perceptions. Figure 3 displays the study data extracted from this analysis.

Figure 3. Qualitative Data Analysis.

The first interview question was based on the learners’ satisfaction with AR implementation in learning vocabulary. 87.91% of the respondents expressed satisfaction by stating that they enjoyed using AR technology to learn vocabulary. Hence, the implementation of AR was well-received by the students. Participant 3 remarked that “We live in the 5 G era and prefer to learn through technology because it is much more effective than textbooks”. Another participant added, “It was a pleasurable activity, and it probably did not feel like a lecture, but more like a fun game”. Based on Figure 3, only one participant (11.1%) indicated he could not acknowledge the experiment because utilising a smartphone distracted him. Meanwhile, the responses to the second question revealed that five respondents (55.5%) needed help understanding the new terms, whereas four participants (44.5%) managed it well without the teacher’s help. Therefore, an instructor’s assistance could make the application of technology more effective.

Similarly, seven students (77.1%) preferred using AR in vocabulary development. In brief, AR can significantly boost learners’ motivation. One respondent added, “The images connected with words were interesting and engaging, as it enabled me to comprehend the concept of the new terms easily”. Another participant who favoured the new technology stated that “The animation active moving items enabled me to comprehend the meaning, besides helping with the pronunciation more effectively”. Contrarily, one respondent had a “negative” opinion of AR implementation because he disliked exchanging ideas with classmates. One of the other participants added that he selected AR because it allows them to walk around while experiencing its interaction, making it much more enjoyable than sitting immobile all day. Based on the data analysis, most students were interested in traditional activities other than continuing to study vocabulary via AR. The students (88.2%) also thought it was an excellent and fun learning method. Based on the responses of the interview participants, the experiment confirmed that even though students liked the AR experiment, they preferred to continue studying vocabulary the traditional way.

14. Discussion

Data analysis indicated that AR’s implementation in EFL vocabulary learning was operative. Unfortunately, the outcomes of the delayed post-test did not significantly improve the vocabulary scores. Notably, there were differences in the mean scores of the AR and Control groups. Meanwhile, the qualitative data revealed mixed conclusions on the effects of AR on students’ vocabulary and their attitude toward the deployed technology. The results indicated that the AR group outperformed the control group on the post-test.

Nevertheless, there was no statistically significant distinction between the two groups. In comparison, the results of the delayed post-test demonstrated similarity with a previous study (He et al., 2014), which also found no significant differences between the post-test outcomes of the treatment and control groups. Conversely, the post-test results exhibited considerable improvement, most likely due to the opportunity to use English language interaction and real-life exposure during the experiment with AR. In short, several factors may have led to the insignificant outcomes of the delayed post-test. Some students expressed dissatisfaction with the usage of AR technology even during the interview, citing “a lack of technological expertise”, “interruptions”, and “confusion” as some of the factors contributing to this perspective.

The results also are aligned with Hsu (2019), who compared AR learning platforms. Given the advantages of AR gaming patterns, which benefit from exciting and engaging virtual environments, which approved extremely successful in learning settings. Likewise, S.-Y. Chen et al. (2018) asserted that the greater vocabulary improvements were due to the interactive and fully-immersive AR technology-based method. The participants’ vocabulary learning has also improved in a informal classroom environment in the present study. The outcomes of the present study also endorsed the finding of Solak and Cakir (2015), who demonstrated the positive benefits of AR on students’ academic achievement and motivation.

The present study outcomes contradict R. W. Chen and Chan’s (2019) findings. According to their findings, the efficacy of AR on vocabulary acquisition was not significantly distinct in two groups, however, the result of the delayed post-test shows similar results. This experiment also endorses the finding of Yilmaz et al. (2022), who concluded that word learning was substantially increased immediately after AR adoption, but the effects started to fade on delayed post-test.

The current study has also demonstrated that participants’ competence in vocabulary acquisition increased noticeably following the AR implementation and the use of flashcards, proving the efficacy of both instructional practices. The findings were consistent with most previous literature that confirmed the profound influence of AR on students’ cognitive capacity (Alsowat, 2017; Santos et al., 2016; Tsai, 2020). However, some learners from the experimental group of our study (64.7%) admitted that they require the teacher’s help to comprehend the new terminology. One respondent said,: “I like the traditional technique since the teacher gives me an explanation when I want it”. This can be attributed to the absence of teachers’ presence during the experiment. While another respondent countered this idea by stating that “the teacher can recognise that my language is poor, which the smartphones cannot”. These remarks confirm the the importance of teachers’ assistance in technological intervention in learning settings. MacCallum and Parsons (2019) also asserted that teachers’ support during the integration of language apps could lead to improved results. The learners could also benefit from the teachers’ directives while using smartphones. Thus, to rely solely on technology may not grant the desired results.

Rather than getting participants to rely solely on their teachers, educating them on employing their initiative and interpersonal vocabulary methods (as described by Schmitt’s (2010) vocabulary taxonomy) is preferable. Consequently, teaching concentration and vocabulary skills to the students could result in more significant vocabulary acquisition.

Overall, the current study implied that AR technology positively affects students’ vocabulary development. Of the 95 participants, 87.7% were impressed with vocabulary acquisition using AR technology. Nevertheless, many factors may be responsible for the improved performance. The respondents’ positive opinions toward AR could all be attributed to the “stimulation”, “game-based learning”, “social connection”, and “mobility” elements. The AR technology was described as “interesting” by students who felt it made the experiment a positive learning opportunity. Several other studies (Alsowat, 2017; Binhomran & Altalhab, 2021; Tsai, 2020) also highlighted that incorporating AR increased student learning and competence. A participant reinforced another perceived quality of the AR technology when he commented that “it was a fun experience, where it probably would not feel like something of a teaching, it felt more like an interesting game”. Since many studies have just begun investigating the idea of “gamification”, which combines instructions with gaming and enjoyment, therefore, the previous description of the AR technology as a “game” can be helpful as a learning tool (Binhomran & Altalhab, 2021).

15. Conclusion

The present study demonstrated the impacts of AR technology on Saudi EFL students’ vocabulary learning using the Nearpod virtual trips. The study concentrated on the effects of AR on learners’ vocabulary acquisition. The results demonstrated that the post-test results for the two groups (control and experimental) favoured the AR group. However, no significant differences were observed in the postponed test. The results also demonstrated that AR helped learners develop their vocabulary with better comprehension. According to the respondents, a variety of variables, including “pleasure”, “animated, engaging elements”, “social connection”, and the “mobility” aspects, were significant for academic achievement. Nevertheless, some students expressed their dissatisfaction with the technology that was being used, claiming that “lack of technological understanding”, “interference”, and “interruption” were the contributing causes of their dissatisfaction while using smartphones. Hence, this study recommends that future studies must focus on AR technology’s role in enhancing vocabulary learning proficiency.

The use of virtual trips helped learners to enhance and retain their vocabulary. The linguistic elements of the flashcards facilitated the interpretation the meaning of the new words’ meaning. Moreover, virtual trips provided learners with an opportunity to interact, which resulted in improved vocabulary acquisition. Therefore, teachers can use virtual trips to improve vocabulary learning through a real-world experiences. Moreover, the use of images can also facilitate teachers to make vocabulary instruction effective. In particular, AR applications can successfully boost EFL students’ vocabulary skills. Teachers can take advantage of the uniqueness of AR techniques to exhibit 3D simultaneous pictures to create learning materials to foster learners’ interest utilization. Teachers can also leverage AR’s innovative and engaging environment to build activities based on the syllabus, thus encouraging students to correlate educational material with their personal experiences through differentiated instruction and exciting experiences, strengthening their learning capacity.

16. Recommendations

Even though this study was conducted in Saudi Arabia, the following recommendations are relevant to a broader context in light of the generated results. The study demonstrated several elements that could help foster an environment advantageous for language instruction to impact learning vocabulary via AR. A compelling vocabulary context should be mindful of the significance of teaching methods, vocabulary techniques, grouping students, participants’ English proficiencies, and learners’ attitudes and perspectives that are prevalent in the classroom. Based on these results, AR technology’s “dynamic, engaging images” helped the learners comprehend unfamiliar words meanings and increased their motivation in learning (MacCallum & Parsons, 2019). Consequently, syllabus developers should consider integrating AR technology-related lessons into EFL textbooks. This study also demonstrated that the Saudi learners rely entirely on their instructors to clarify the meanings of newly introduced terms. To overcome this obstacle, learners should be instructed to apply vocabulary approaches explicitly. To this end, teachers can devise vocabulary activities which can allow students self-paced vocabulary learning, which will help them the retention of vocabulary.

On the other hand, mastering CALL and MALL interventions studies could benefit teachers to imply the AR technology for other language abilities, such as writing, listening, and speaking for their students. Instructors should engage learners in groups since this may help stimulate discussions and dialogues among learners, as in communicative approaches, besides assisting learners in developing vocabulary strategies in social contexts. The participants in this study indicated that they preferred group learning because it could encourage and expand learners’ vocabulary. Additionally, EFL language planners should create learning content incorporating virtual field trips to help students feel more autonomous and motivated.

Additionally, instructors should be trained in the use of pertinent learning apps and devices that can be employed in the classroom. Consequently, educators, curriculum developers, and language policymakers should update vocabulary teaching materials to ensure that they are appropriate, attractive, applicable to learners’ actual experiences, and technology-friendly. Concurrently, “gamification” blends instruction and enjoyment and is now being used in educational establishments. Therefore, it is recommended that studies should investigate the possibilities of gamification in the Saudi Arabian context because it might be more appropriate for EFL learners by offering them more significant learning environment. This study had some limitations, namely: (i) it included only male learners, and future studies should include both male and female learners; (ii) the researcher also had to rely on the pre-formed intact groups, which may have affected the result; (iii) the study duration was also short, considering that a prolonged intervention is required to underpin the effectiveness of AR in vocabulary learning.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Raja Muhammad Ishtiaq Khan

Raja Muhammad Ishtiaq Khan Is an English Lecturer at Majmaah University, KSA. He Is Has a Cambridge Celta Certification in Teaching and Has 13+ Years of Experience in Esl and Efl. He Holds PhD Degree in Applied Linguistics. His Research Includes Applied Linguistics, Mall, L2 Vocabulary Learning and Teaching, Second Language Acquisition, And Efl Teaching. He Has Published Number of Papers in Various Reputed Journals.

Ashraf Ali

Ashraf Ali Is an Assistant Professor at The Faculty of Computer Studies, Arab Open University, Kingdom of Bahrain. He Holds Ph.D. Degree in Computer Science and Engineering. He Has 15+ Years of Experience in Teaching at Various Universities Around the World Including Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, And Bahrain. His Research Interest Includes Cloud Computing, Web Mining, Web Information Retrieval, Semantic Web, Semantic Similarity, And Artificial Intelligence. He Has Published a Number of Articles in The Various Journal of Repute.

Tribhuwan Kumar

Tribhuwan Kumar Is an Assistant Professor at The Department of English, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, KSA. He Holds A H.D. Degree Having Versatile Working Experience as EFL Educator. His Research Interest Includes ELT, Poetry and Linguistics.

Anita Venugopal

Dr. Anita Venugopal Is Ph.D. In Computer Science and Mathematics. Research Interest - Artificial Intelligence, Database Systems, Machine Learning System, Pattern Recognition, Neural Network and Information Science. Published Number of Research Papers in Various Referred International/ National Journals and Conferences. Have More Than 28 Years of Experience in Teaching. Taught Relevant Areas of Computer Science, GUI Programming, Database, Multimedia and Web Technology at Different Levels.