A short history of Awi Agew horse culture, Northwestern Ethiopia

Abstract

The Awi Agew is one of the most ancient inhabitants of the northern and central highland plateau of Ethiopia. They occupied most of this plateau until the seventeenth century but have been displaced or absorbed over most of this region by the Semitic-speaking peoples. Horses were probably introduced into Ethiopia from the Nile valley during the second half of the second millennium B.C. As the Agew are one of the early inhabitants of the aforementioned region of Ethiopia, their early introduction with horse breeding and training is noticeable, as they did in the area of early plant domestication. Gradually they learned to breed donkey with horse to produce mule, which is outstanding cultural creativity. Agew Meder (now Awi Zone) in Gojjam is also noted for its horse plow culture and long-aged horse riders association. However, there is no comprehensive study undertaken on the history of Awi Agew horse culture. This paper, based on published and unpublished sources and oral accounts, attempted to fill this gap by exploring the place of ancient Awi Agew people in the breeding and training of horses, investigating the beginning of their horse plow culture and looking into the history of Agew Horse Riders Association.

Keywords:

• horse culture
• horse plow
• Awi Agew
• Awi Zone
• Ethiopia
• Agew Horse Riders Association

1. Introduction

The horse (Equus Caballus) belongs to the family Equidae. They are one of the most essential domestic animals which played vital role in the history and development of civilization. However, when, where and why the horses were first domesticated remains still unclear (Khadka, 2010, p. 2). But there is literature showing an art how human beings relate to horses has been recognized since the ancient Greeks (Birke, 2007, p. 219). Horses are present throughout the world and have been with human beings all the way through history serving a variety of practical purposes which include serving as a means of transport, a work animal in agriculture and in wars (Khadka, 2010, p. 2). Horses were valuable assets to secure wealth, power and position in the society. As a matter of fact, a part from the material benefit, the cultural significance of horses and the culture called horse ridership became vital for owners of horses (Helgadottir, 2006, p. 536).

Ethiopians interaction with horse can be traced to early times (Pankhrust, 1989, p. 197). The Ethiopian highlands are areas having large number of horse population and a well-established culture of using horses to meet socio-cultural and economic needs of the society (Alemu, 2020, pp. 6–9). The kings and nobilities of the country were reported to have strong and beautiful horses which were used not only to travel from one area to another but also for warfare purposes during territorial expansion and the fight against rebels and for hunting activities (Pankhrust, 1989, pp. 197–199). In relation to the utilization of horses by early Ethiopians, Wylde (1901, p. 290) asserts that the war horses used by the upper classes are consistently well kept and some of them are very fine animals.

Traditional Ethiopian society is well known in the custom of calling chiefs, warriors and other persons of status after the name of horses they rode (Pankhrust, 1989, p. 197). Ethiopian horse name was given to a man as an indication of “his good administration, judgment and council in times of peace and his bravery and strategy in times of war” (Mahtama Sellase, 1969, p. 195). For instance, the emperors of modern Ethiopia had various horse names. Emperor Tewodros II’s was Abba Tatek (which means gird yourself), Emperor Yohannes IV’s was Abba Bezibiz (exploit), Emperor Menelik II’s was Abba Dagnaw (rule them united), and Emperor Haile Selassie I’s was Abba Takel (take over all) (Mehari, 2007, pp. 10–11). The Ethiopian highlands are areas having large number of horse population and a well-established culture of using horses to meet socio-cultural and economic needs of the society. For instance, the inhabitants of the highland areas of Awi zone have long years of horse breeding and horse care culture. Horses and horse riders play pivotal socio-cultural and economic roles, such as in annual religious celebration, mourning ceremony, escorting guests, sport competition, wedding ceremony, transportation, loading and plow. Horse is also used for different ceremonial purposes, such as gugs (dressage) and cholt/shimit (speedy riding) shows undertaken by members of horse riders associations at Kebele,¹ Qetena,² Woreda/district/and zonal levels (Alemu, 2020, pp. 5–9).

The overall purpose of this study is to explore the history of Awi Agew horse culture. The specific objectives are introducing the Awi Agew people focusing on their contribution in initiating the domestication of plants in Northern Ethiopia, exploring the place of ancient Awi Agew in the breeding and training of horses and other pack animals, investigating the beginning of horse plow culture among the Awi Agew people and looking into the culture of horse ridership and the history of Agew Horse Riders Association.

2. Methodology

This research is undertaken based on historical methods and qualitative approach. Non-probability/purposive/sampling technique was employed to select research participants and study sites. In order to gather the necessary data for this study, the researcher used document analysis and in-depth interview as instruments of data collection. Thus, both primary and secondary data were used in this study. The primary data was collected from informants, such as local horse riders, members of horse riders association and local elders, having adequate knowledge on the history of the horse culture of Awi Agew people. The secondary data was collected from published scholarly works, traveler accounts and unpublished M.A. and Ph.D dissertations.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Introducing the Awi Agew³ people: overview

The Agew⁴ is one of the most ancient inhabitants of the northern and central highland plateau of Ethiopia. Before the advent of Semitic speakers around 1000 B.C. (Gamst, 1969, p. 12), the region from the south of the Mereb and Beles Rivers as far as Jama River in North Shawa and Takaze River to the east was inhabited by Agew people (Taddesse, 1988, pp. 5–8). They occupied most of the aforementioned region of Ethiopia until the seventeenth century but have been displaced or absorbed over most of this region by the Semitic-speaking peoples (Levin, 1974, p. 37; Murdock, 1959, p. 181). According to Taddesse (1988, p. 6), the Agew were so determined to overcome intensive institutional and cultural ambushes by subsequent states for over 24 centuries. This enabled them to retain at least their linguistic identity. Most of historical literatures acknowledge the Agew for their crucial legacies of Ethiopian civilization (Ibid). Therefore, this section gives due attention to the role of ancient Agew in initiating the domestication of plants in Northern Ethiopia.

The Paleolithic hunting and gathering inhabitants of the Ethiopian plateau and the surrounding area belong to two distinct peoples, the Bushmanoid and the Caucasoids, which had occupied the region before 5000 B.C. (Gamst, 1969, p. 11; Murdock, 1959, p. 181). The Bushmanoid peoples left their concrete traces in the Southwest, whereas Caucasoids apparently occupied the northern part of Ethiopia (Murdock, 1959, p. 181). The Caucasoid hunters and gatherers obviously were the ancestors of the Cushitic-speaking peoples of the present-day Ethiopia (Gamst, 1969, p. 11).

An important aspect of the pre-historic culture was the domestication of plants and animals which was believed to have started 6000 years ago (Bahru, 2002, p. 7). In a study undertaken to identify early center of plant cultivation at global level, Vavilov (1935, pp. 316–366) pointed 11 centers of domestication of plants, one of which is the Abyssinian (now Ethiopia) center, the only area identified in Africa.⁵ By the same token, Gamst (1969, p. 11) asserts that “[b]otanic evidence indicates that Ethiopia was an ancient center of plant domestication and dispersal, but not a wholly independent center of plant domestication.” Similarly, Murdock (1959, p. 182) declared that “[c]entral highland Ethiopia ranks with China and India as one of the world’s important minor center of origination of cultivated plants.” Early domestication of plants in northern Ethiopia is credited to ancient Agew who belong to the Cushitic linguistic super family (Gamst, 1969, p. 11), an activity considered to be the beginning of civilization (Henze, 2000, pp. 10–12). In relation to this aspect, Gamst (1969, p. 11) asserts that:

The ancestral Agaws … domesticated certain plants such as the small grained teff, the oil seed nug, and perhaps finger millet. … Horticultural techniques and plants such as wheat, barley, and flax, came around 3000 B.C. to the ancestral Agaw, who were in a direct spatial line of diffusion from the Middle Eastern agricultural center.

Linguistic archaeology also argues that ancient Cushitic peoples of the region might have cultivated such crops. For instance, Marcus (1994, pp. 3–4) pointed out that the cultivation of various food items with the plow by the Proto-Ethiopians is as old as agriculture itself which is some 10 millennia B.P. Munro-Hay (1991, p. 620) also asserts that “words for plough” and other agricultural vocabularies are apparently of Agew origin. This makes the ancient Agew one of the earliest peoples to involve themselves in the domestication of plants in the world.

Developments in the Middle East, especially in the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia, also influenced the Horn of Africa in terms of early domestication of plants. Wheat and barley, domesticated in Asia Minor and Iran, began to be cultivated in Egypt during the 6^th millennium Before Christ (B.C.). There is evidence of their spread to Southern Egypt by 4500 B.C. From this center of domestication, wheat and barley diffused into the Nile Valley and into the Ethiopian Highlands, where climate and soil conditions favored their cultivation (Henze, 2000, p. 11).

Taddesse (1988, pp. 6–7) also noted that “[t]he Agaw are of crucial importance because, they are the very basis on which the whole edifice of Aksumite Civilization was constructed.” They also supplied a predominant section of the population and linguistic elements that determined the Semitic characteristics of the Ethiopian people (Gamst, 1969, p. 12). The role of the Agew in Aksumite civilization can best be explained by the meaning of the word Aksum which is derived from a combination of the Agew word “Ah^u” (which stands for “Water”) and the Semitic word “Shum” (which stands for “Chief”), which together means “Chief of Water.” Therefore, in the naming of Aksum, the Agew contributed the central term “Water”, while the politically dominant Semitic speakers provided the administrative term “Chief” (Taddesse, 1988, p. 7). The Agew people ruled Ethiopia during the Zagwe period (C. 1150 to 1270), which is credited to the building of ten monolithic churches, which are described as “a wonder of the world” by the Portuguese Jesuit Father Francisco Alvares (Henze, 2000, pp. 49–52).

The Agew are speakers of the languages of the Cushitic sub-family, which today is represented by languages of Belen (Eretria), Xhemtana (Wello), Qimant (Gonder) and Awi (Agew Meder and Metekel) (Appleyard, 1966, p. 1). The Awi Agew, the subjects of this study, is currently found in Awi Nationality Administrative Zone of Amhara National Regional State. Injibara, the administrative center of Awi Zone, is found at a distance of 447 km and 118 km away from Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar, respectively (Nibret, 2020, pp. 1–3).

3.2. Ancient Agew as ‘pioneers’ in the Breeding and training of horses and other pack animals in Northern Ethiopia

Currently, it is believed that animal husbandry was introduced into Ethiopia from Nubia around or before 2000 B.C (Gamst, 1969, p. 11). The most logical route for the introduction of domestic livestock would have been through the Nile Valley from Sudan. The excavations around Kassala have provided some confirmation of this theory (Henze, 2000, p. 12). More is known and can be systematically inferred from neighboring areas about the spread of herding and livestock rearing into Ethiopia. Cattle were independently domesticated in Europe, North Africa, the Sahara and India. Cattle herding appears to have entered Ethiopia from the Nile Valley around the beginning of the second millennium B.C (Ibid: 13; Pitt et al., 2019). Sheep and goats did not originate in Africa. They were domesticated in the Middle East. Sheep and goats probably arrived in Ethiopia both via the Nile Valley and the Red Sea coast (Henze, 2000, p. 12). Murdock (1959, p. 183) also asserts that ‘[t]he Agau obtained cattle, sheep and goats from ancient Egypt, presumably via Nubians and Prenilotes … probably around the beginning of the third millennium B.C. …’ Thus, based on the sources mentioned above, it is possible to argue that similar to the domestication of plants, the Cushitic Agew is also “pioneer” in the early domestication of animals in Northern Ethiopia.

Horses, which have been part of Ethiopian life during the past one thousand years, were probably introduced into the country from the Nile valley, coming originally from North Africa and the Sahara during the second half of the second millennium B.C. (Henze, 2000, p. 14). The donkey, on the other hand, was common in the wild in desert regions of the Horn as far as Egypt and may have been domesticated independently both in Egypt and Ethiopia (Ibid). The early place of the Agew in the breeding and training of pack animals is described by a scholar as: “[the Agew] themselves apparently domesticated the donkey, or ass, and later learned to [breed] it with the horse to produce mules” (Murdock, 1959, p. 183). After carefully examining the remarkable contribution of the ancient Agew in the invention of new plant varieties (as shown in the above section) and animal species (Mule) in the Ethiopian region, Murdock declared the cultural creative capacity of the ancient Agew stating: “the Agaws [are] one of the culturally most creative peoples on the entire continent [Africa]” (Murdock, 1959, p. 182).

The attachment of the Awi Agew people with horse and their wealth and hospitality as well as bravery is considered by the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century European travelers who crossed the area inhabited by the people under consideration. In his description of the Agew, who inhabited Agew Meder, Bruce (1790, p. 736) asserts that the Agew were one of the most considerable nations in Abyssinia. They were much more powerful. Their defense system was built by horses (amounting about 4000) and infantry men, which enabled the Agew to confront and crush several unsuccessful invasions of the Oromo and the incorporation campaigns undertaken by the Gonderine kings in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In their fight against the Gonderine kings, the Awi Agaw is said to have mobilized their army accompanied by large number of cavalrymen (Nibret, 2020, pp. 48–49). There is also a source which shows that due to large number of horses, the districts of the Agew such as Zeegem and Kuakuera “have no reasons to fear the irregular invasions of … the [Oromo]” (Bruce, 1790, p. 741). The army of Awi Agew was said to have composed of cavalrymen in their fight against the Damot and Shenasha peoples who created settlement in Gojjam in the sixteenth century (Nibret, 2020, p. 49). The Gonderine kings are also reported to have frequently visited the villages of Agew rulers during their leisure time to get trained horses of the Agew and Agew hunting guides. A case in point is Iyasu I (1682–1706) who had established close relationship with Chehuay II of Metekel to pass his leisure time hunting in the lowlands of Metekel with the Agews, who use hunting dogs and horse rider hunting bands to kill big game animals with the use of sword (Ayenew, 2019, p. 69). There are also sources revealing the participation of Awi Agew horse riders at the battles of Sarwuha (1888) and Matamma (1889) against the Sudanese, and Adwa (1896) against the Italians (Nibret, 2020, p. 49).

In the nineteenth century, Agew Meder, the home of the Awi Agew people, was also reported by European traveler as one of the preferred province of Abyssinia due to its fertility, and the people are also reported to have excellent hospitality culture and act of bravery against their enemies (Blank, 1869, p. 296), which is further described as:

… Agaus form a wealthy and powerful tribe. When we pass through their country [Agew Meder] their hospitality [has] no bounds; and their amiable and courteous manners, their pleasing, smiling faces, I still remember with pleasure. … They are brave, and if invaded, fight to the last. (Ibid)

The peoples of Ethiopia have suffered drought and famine throughout centuries. At the end of the nineteenth century, their life was seriously affected by Great Famine (1888–1892) known in Ethiopia as Kifu Qene (evil days) which was caused by cattle disease. This famine caused serious economic and social upheaval in all parts of Gojjam (Abdussamad, 1987, pp. 2–3). When Gojjam began to recover from the effect of the Great Famine at the beginning of the twentieth century, the British government administering Sudan determined to open up trade between Sudan and Gojjam. To this end, the British Sudan sent C. H. Walker to Dunkur/also Dangur/, a town in the Ethiopian territory. The need of the British Sudan was welcomed by the then governor of Gojjam, Ras⁶ Hailu, who advanced money to the merchants engaging themselves in the purchase of animals from villagers. The credit system already devised allowed the private merchants to barter for their profit and helped Ras Hailu’s merchants to minimize the time spent to obtain animals from villagers. Based on the arrangement already made, Gojjam exported cattle and pack animals like horses, mules and donkeys to Sudan. In this trade relationship, Agew Meder played a pivotal role in the export of pack animals. With regard to this aspect, Abdussamad (1987, p. 241) asserts:

Agaw Meder in Gojjam was noted for its production of pack animals. The inhabitants bred mare horses and donkey stallions, producing plenty of excellent mules and ponies. Horses of Agaw Meder were in high demand by government officials in the British Sudan, who used them to patrol the frontier.

However, the export of pack animals was opposed by Lij Iyasu who issued edict in 1914 that prevented the export of pack animals (including horse) from Agew Meder and other parts of the country to Sudan. This opposition was made based on the assertion that pack animals are needed for the prince’s tour of the country. Lij Iyasu was also reported to have imprisoned Nagadras⁷ Warge, the chief of customs office at Dangila, due to his permission of a Greek merchant to take mules from Dangila to Gedaref (Ibid).

3.3. The beginning of horse plow culture among the Awi Agew people

One of the distinct features of the Awi Agew is horse plow (see Figure 1). McCann (1995, p. 50) asserts that “in Agaw Meder (Gojjam) … horses have substituted for oxen and have even dominated localized traction systems.” Horse plow is largely practiced in areas having highland agro-ecology such as Banja, Ankesha, Guagusa Shikudad and Fagita-Lekoma Woredas. In areas having mid-land agro-ecology, horse is used in limited scale for loading and transportation. In areas having low-land agro-ecology, horse is not used for any purpose, because it is easily affected by disease and tse tse fly. As a result, in areas having the latter agro-ecology, different activities are undertaken with the use of other pack animals such as mule and donkey.⁸

Figure 1. Plow with horse.

Source: Author’s Own (2022).

The use of horse for plow agriculture by the Awi Agew is the result of long years of experimentation undertaken on the training of horses for plow purpose and on the preparation of equipment suitable for horse plow (Alemu, 2020, p. 8). There are various views forwarded by informants and historical accounts on the genesis of horse plow culture among the Awi Agew people. The first view argues that during Kifu Qen (evil days) due to the death of large herds of cattle in northern and central Ethiopia (including Agew Meder) which resulted in famine at the end of the nineteenth century, the Awi Agew were forced to resort to the use of horse for plowing (Ayenew, 2010, pp. 35–38). The second view asserts that horse plow started among the Awi Agew during the Italian invasion of the country. According to an informant, the area called Fafa (part of Ankesha Woreda) was collaborator to the Italian invaders. This brought conflict between the banda (collaborator) group of Fafa and the patriots group of the neighboring people of Satma-Dangya and Guta localities. As a result, animals of Fafa (except horses, mules and donkeys) were said to have been looted and their houses were burnt by the people of Satama-Dangia and Guta in Agew Meder Awraja. As a result, the Fafa community was said to have resorted to the use of the available horses for plowing and they remained to be familiar with this culture till today.⁹ The area called Fafa in Ankesha Woreda is also reported by informants as “the first place” where horse plow was practiced. It was from this area that this culture was said to have radiated to other parts of Agew Meder.¹⁰ Another informant also asserts that Ankesha was the home of Bazira horse (fecund female horse). As a result, the fecund female horse brought to Banja was nick-named as Ankeesha Feeresa (which means a fecund female horse obtained in Ankesha Woreda).¹¹

Abdussamad (1987, p. 5), however, asserts that there was a well-established horse plow culture in Agew Meder before the outbreak of the Great Famine (1888–1892). This is due to abundant existence of horses and other pack animals such as donkeys and mules in this awraja (province). During the famine, cattle plague was reported to have killed most of the cattle in Gojjam, a province to which Agew Meder also belongs. The death of cattle caused a drastic decline in agricultural production in the region. The measure taken by the farmers of the region in response to the death of their cattle is described by the same author as follows:

Farmers of Gojjam proper and Damot resorted to ploughing with horses, mules and donkeys which survived the rinderpest epidemic. Farmers of Agaw Midir were accustomed to using horses for ploughing even before the famine [of 1888–1892. (Abdussamad, 1987, p. 5)

However, the peasants of Gojjam proper¹² and Damot used horses, mules and donkeys only for about a year. This is because these animals were scarce in these areas and took time to breed horses and mules (Ibid). Since the Awi Agew are familiar with pack animals in general and horses in particular starting from the B.C. (Murdock, 1959, pp. 182–183), Abdussamad’s argument seems more sound than other local informants. Thus, the familiarity of the Awi Agew with horse plow is an age-old practice which remained common in the region for longer period of time, before the 1888–1892 great famine which took place in Northern Ethiopia.

Obviously, the decline in agricultural productivity which was caused by the impact of the Great Famine could not be checked with horse plow, due to the weakness of horses to undertake plow in the highland areas. As a result, the Awi Agew were said to have brought cattle from the southern part of the country and started breeding to use them as source of food and other purposes. This enabled them to continue the old tradition of plow with oxen. The use of horse for plow was either ceased or drastically declined (Nibret, 2020, p. 46). However, once again the Awi Agew were said to have resumed using horses for plowing during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935/36–1941. At this time, as already mentioned earlier, some members of the community in Fafa locality (in Ankesha Woreda) collaborated with the Italians. As a result, the patriots of the locality were said to have burnt the houses of the collaborators and looted their property including oxen, leaving merely pack animals such as horses and mules.¹³ Due to the crisis already occurred, the Awi Agew elders, who have experience with horse plow earlier, were forced once again to plow with horse (Ayenew, 2010, pp. 35–38), a practice which remained dominant in the highland areas till these days.

When we compare ox and horse plow, the latter can undertake plow hastily. However, it doesn’t plow deeply. Hence, horse plow needs to be undertaken repeatedly. Besides, horse has no power to uproot sardu/serdo grass¹⁴ and it can’t undertake plow with the coming of slight rain. Furthermore, it can’t undertake plow on the edge of rivers and precipitous areas, where the horse is easily bolted. As a result, horse plow needs to be supplemented by spade. Whereas ox is powerful, so that it can undertake plow deeply. It has also the power to uproot serdo grass and to undertake plow with the coming of slight rain in swamp areas, on the edge of the rivers and on ridge-like areas. In plow agriculture, the superiority of oxen is obvious. However, due to population growth and shortage of pasture land, these days, it is impossible to get adequate grass to the oxen in the highland areas of Awi Zone. Hence, instead of training oxen, the residents of the highland areas of Awi Zone prefer to train horse for plowing. This is because horse has the ability to resist shortage of grass by grazing whatever is found on the ground. Besides, horse does not lose its power with the shortage of grass. Hence, in these areas plow agriculture is largely undertaken by horse.¹⁵ The following local poem is composed by local farmer to recognize the role of horse in farming practice.

Ya Beerane Misgana Wosedew Feresu

Behula Tenesto Befit Bemederesu¹⁶

The horse has taken the credit of the ox

For getting up late, but arriving early

The above poem is composed to show the role of horse in the threshing of crops. It conveys the message that while the ox is walking slowly during threshing, the horse performs the activity hastily a head of the ox. The following local poem is composed at times when the horse is exhausted and the farmer is bored.

Fenzo Yajinaw Geta

Asado Geday Yamata Mata¹⁷

Fenzo horse, holder of fly-whisky

Concludes its task till the last hours of the day

The message conveyed by this poem is that though the horse and the farmer are exhausted, the farming practice will be concluded in the last hours of the same day.

3.4. Horse ridership and horse riders association among the Awi Agew people

3.4.1. The status of horse ridership among the Awi Agew people

As the residents of the highland areas of Awi Zone have close interconnection with horse since antiquity, they have their own description of horse ridership. My informants who are asked about the essence of horse ridership related it with the culture maintained by forefathers and with the forefather’s patriotism and heroism, which is mentioned as:

Horse ridership is inheriting the culture and patriotism of our forefathers by breeding or buying senga horses and fulfilling all the equipment and dressing, and involving in socio-cultural events such as wedding and mourning ceremonies, accompanying annual religious celebrations, participating in horse art shows such as gugs and shimit, horse sport competition, and escorting guests, public holidays and peaceful demonstrations, and loyalty for the cultural values of the forefathers.¹⁸

Horse ridership is a highly favored cultural value in the locality. Both men and women inhabitants of the highland areas of Awi Zone, who reached adolescent stage, are owners of singi/senga (gelding) horse, due to its importance in various socio-cultural ceremonies. Hence, they are horse riders (see Figure 2). The local community had great respect for horse riders which is emanated from their role in enlivening the various socio-cultural events carried in their immediate locality. This respect is manifested especially by preparing feast for the horse riders moving from one area to another in groups. In the same fashion, the horse riders have also great respect for the community, which is shown by actively involving themselves in the various socio-cultural events of the community.¹⁹

Figure 2. Awi Agew horse riders during annual festival.

Source: Author’s Own (2022).

The boys and girls who are born and grown up in Awi Zone start interaction with horse and horse riding during their formative years. The tradition of the locality also encourages the attachment of the boys and girls with horse at their early stage. For instance, when a kid is christened, his God parent promises him to teach various skills, one of which is horse riding. This is because, a man who is equipped with the skill of horse riding can easily capture and escape from his/her enemy and can prevent his/her country from the invasion of an enemy. As a matter of fact, the boy and girl who reached the age of seven starts experiencing him/her by climbing on his father’s horse loaded with harness, during the latter’s going out of and coming into home to and from different areas. Then, the boy and the girl go to the field and continue experiencing himself/herself by climbing on a horse without horse harness. Gradually, the boy’s and girl’s horse interest increases and starts experiencing him/her with horse riding. In order to be a horse rider, an individual needs to have a senga horse, which is obtained either by breeding or buying; horse equipment, which is produced from animal skin, wood and iron by local artisans; and the skill of gugs, shimit and other horse art shows, which are acquired by observation and personal effort starting from childhood.²⁰

The inhabitants of the highland areas of Awi Zone have great affiliation and respect for senga horse. This is because senga horse is used in the locality for enlivening different socio-cultural events such as mourning ceremony, religious celebration, wedding ceremony, escorting of guests and horse sport competition. Whenever it is necessary it is also used to undertake different activities such as plow, loading and transportation. It also enables the owner to get different responsibilities within the horse riders association, such as Aliqi/Alaqa, head of the association. Because of its multi socio-cultural purposes, senga horse is source of respect for the owner, which is explained by an informant as “senga feres ena tiru libse ande nachew”/’an individual with beautiful clothe and senga horse are one and the same’/. These days, in Awi Zone individuals can become owners of senga horse in two ways: breeding in their locality and buying from other areas such North Shoa (Oromia Region).²¹

3.4.2. Motivating conditions for horse ridership among Awi Agew people

Horse ridership is part of the life of Awi Agew people. There are various conditions that motivate the boys, girls and men of Awi Zone to become horse riders. Firstly, there is greater interest and determination to maintain and follow the cultural values of the forefathers. The following local poem shows this determination.

Ya Abatun Bisatut Adragotu

Ya Abatun Bikelut Motu²²

Virtue is if they pass him his father’s good deeds on inheritance

Death is if they forbid

The above poem conveys the message that donating the forefather’s value is respectful, whereas ignoring it is shamefulness. It also shows that inheriting the forefather’s value is the question of death and existence. Therefore, for the members of the community in Awi Zone, horse ridership is the most important cultural value to be inherited by succeeding generations. Secondly, there is also greater interest on the side of the sons and daughters to inherit and uphold their fathers’ horse ridership, which is associated with patriotism and heroism. Especially a son who failed to do so is highly criticized in the locality. This interest is clearly shown in the following bragging.

Yiwoldena Andandu Wusha

Shito Yibelal Ya Abatun Gasha

Ya Abatun Gasha Daj Yakoyewn

Yamotalata Yaminagerewn²³

Born in the likeness of one of those dogs

Consumes his father’s shield by selling it

That shield his father used to stage a horse-show in public

The shield that will be used to tell the father’s story upon his death

The above poem conveys the message that with the death of horse rider father, a son needs to be a horse rider by following his father’s horse ridership bravery. It also implies that the son shall hold his father’s shield rather than selling it. As a matter of fact, an individual who inherited the horse ridership bravery of his father and involving himself actively in gugs show in annual religious celebration is highly respected in the locality (see Figure 3). Hence, an individual who inherited the horse ridership bravery of his father is also proud of his father and himself. This is clearly shown in the bragging voiced by such individuals following their active involvement in gugs show in annual religious celebrations, which is shown as follows.

Figure 3. Gugis/Dressage/ show during annual religious celebration.

Source: Author’s Own (2022).

Diro Bayate Diro Babate

Yagirazmach Lij Ya Balehawultu

Gasha Yiqedal Ba Yatabotu²⁴

Practiced by my father and forefather

The son of prominent figure having legacy

Cuts open a shield during gugs show at religious celebration

The above bragging shows that the skill of heavily hitting and cut open a shield is the one inherited by an individual from the fathers and the forefathers and it is considered as the highest success in horse ridership. Thirdly, horse ridership is a highly respected value in the locality. Hence, horse riders are highly respected and are considered as hero, because of their involvement in various socio-cultural events such as gugs, cholt/shimit, sigri/sigria and other horse art shows. Above all, the title called Aleqa, which is given for the heads of horse riders association from kebele to zonal levels, is highly valued. A horse rider having this title is highly respected not only by horse riders themselves but also by the community at large, due to his role as coordinator of the members of the horse riders association.²⁵ Thus, the need to maintain the cultural value of the forefathers, the association of horse ridership with patriotism and heroism, and the respect given for the horse riders are motivations for horse ridership in Awi Zone. As a result, in most cases, adolescent males who are born and grown up in the highland areas of the zone are owners of senga horse either by breeding or buying. They also involve themselves in various socio-cultural events in their locality.

3.5. The foundation and development of Agew Horse Riders Association

3.5.1. Foundation

The major spirit that instigated the foundation of Agew Horse Riders Association was the 1896 Ethiopian victory at Adwa over the Italian colonialists (Alemu, 2020, p. 13). In order to fight against the enemy, Ethiopians from all corners of the country gathered with their spear, sword and shield and marched to the enemy (Bahru, 2002, pp. 76–78). Due to his awareness on the contribution of horses in wars, especially for superior mobility, Emperor Menelik II raised not more than 8000 horses, due to their loss in large numbers through cattle epidemic which prevailed in 1889–90 (Dunn, 1994, p. 290). Horses were used to transport logistics, exchange information and fight against the enemy. Besides, St. George’s Ark of the Covenant was said to have marched to the war front together with Emperor Menelik II and Empress Taytu (Alemu, 2020, p. 13). Therefore, there is strong belief on the Ethiopian side that the victory of Adwa was scored not only by the heroic struggle of the Ethiopians but also that of the “blessing” of St. George’s Arc of the Covenant, which is symbolized by horse rider (Ibid).

After about 40 years of preparation, Italian fascists launched the second round invasion of Ethiopia in 1935/36 from Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. This invasion was intended to erase their defeat at Adwa and the control of the whole of Ethiopia. By the time, the enemy crossed the Mereb River and launched the invasion of the country, Ethiopians mobilized themselves from all corners of the country under different war leaders and marched against the enemy (Bahru, 2002, pp. 150–158). Like that of the Adwa period, in the second Italian invasion, Ethiopians were said to have used horses to transport logistics and exchange information.²⁶

Though there is consensus on the cause for the establishment of Agew Horse Riders Association, there are various views forwarded on the year of the establishment of the association. The first view is the one forwarded by Ayenew (2010, p. 34) which argues that this association was established in 1939 with the primary objective of helping the patriots, who were fighting the Italian invaders, to exchange information quickly from one area to another using horse rider messengers. The second view considers 1940 (1932 Ethiopian Calendar—E.C.) as the year of establishment of the association (Awi Administratve Zone, 2020, p. 3). This view is supported by the contemporary Agew Horse Riders Association ruling bodies and experts of Awi Zone Culture and Tourism Department. The third view considers the year 1942 (1934 E.C.), almost a year after the liberation of the country from Italian occupation, as the establishment year of the association (Awi Zone Horse Riders Association, 2004, p. 1). This year was already agreed as year of establishment by a meeting held at Injibara Town in 2004 by representatives of the horse riders of the then seven woredas of Awi Zone. Informants also argue that this association was established after the withdrawal of Italian invaders and the return of Emperor Haile Selassie I from exile in 1941.²⁷

In order to solve the puzzle of the year of establishment of the association, there is a question which seeks serious consideration. Is it possible to establish this association before the withdrawal of the Italian invaders from Agew Meder and Gojjam in particular and Ethiopia in general? The researcher’s answer is “No”. This is because up to 1941 Gojjam in general and Agew Meder in particular were not stable. Still, there was a confrontation against the Italian invaders. For instance, battles were fought with the Italians at Injibara (22 February 1941) (Alula, 2011, p. 58), Yechereqa (4–8 March 1941) (Ibid: 59–60), Bure (5–8 March 1941) and Debre Markos (14–31 March 1941) (Seltene, 2003, p. 55). The inauguration of this association cannot take place under such unstable conditions. Therefore, I strongly argue that the third view which supports 1942 as year of establishment of the Agew Horse Riders Association seems sound than the first two views.

Though there are various views in the year of establishment, all relate the establishment of the association with the spirit of the victory of Adwa (1896) and the second Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935/36–1941). According to these views, Awi Agew had strong belief on the “role” of St. George’s Arc of the Covenant at the victory of Adwa and that of the horses both in the first and second Italian invasions of Ethiopia to transport logistics and to fight against the enemy. Since Agew Meder was the home of large number of patriots, horses and horse riders, Awi Agew prominent figures and patriots collected the dispersed horse riders and patriots, and decided to establish horse riders association to remind the “role” of St. George’s Arc of the Covenant in the victory of Adwa and that of horses both in the first and second Italian invasion of Ethiopia. This association was determined to the date of St. George’s martyrdom, the 23^rd of Tir (31^st of January), to commemorate his “role” at the victory of Adwa and that of horses to transport logistics and to fight against the enemy in both invasions (Alemu, 2020, p. 13). Since St. George is peculiarly symbolized by horse rider, he became the springboard for the establishment of Horse Riders Association in Agew Meder. Thus, members of Agew Horse Riders Association continued to celebrate St. George’s day of 23 monthly and annually. The association also became symbol of victory against the enemy.²⁸ At the beginning, this association was named as “Yagiorgis Feresegnoch Mahber”/Saint George’s Horse Riders Association/. After a short period of time, it was renamed “Ya Sebat Bet Agew Feresegnoch Mahber”/Seven House of Agew Horse Riders association, named after traditionally known Agew immigrants from Last Sekota (Nibret, 2020, pp. 49–50). But in 2021, the association decided to name itself as Agew Horse Riders Association.²⁹

At the beginning, this association was founded at awraja level by 32 members (Nibret, 2020, p. 49). The major founding fathers of this association, among others, were Awi Agew prominent figures and patriots such as Kagnazmach³⁰ Kebede Nigussie, Girazmatch³¹ Mekonnen Alemu, Dessalew Wolde Medhine, Abebe Amanuel, Admass Yimer and Girazmach Nigussie Ambaye. They also served as Aleqa of the association successively at the level of the whole Agew of Agew Meder and Metekel, during the Imperial and Derg regimes. Gradually, this association was organized at Woreda, Deputy Woreda and Kebele levels, each with its own Aleqa and members.³² As a result, there were other figures that played leadership role in the horse riders associations established below awraja level. These include Blatta³³ Kassa Adela, Asresa Adela and Kegnazmach Bitew Jembere in Guagusa/Marita; Blatta Bizoye Engida, Agafare Berhanu Fente and Alemu Reda in Kessa; Girazmach Tessema Jembere, Chekole Fente and Blatta Byaminu Desta in Den Zuria; Alem Kulecho in Shashina³⁴; Endalew Yigzaw in Kuakura; Girazmach Asres Kidanu, Ambaw Chekol, Ferede Meshesha and Kebede Habitu in Satma-Dangia.³⁵ The position of Aleqa is given for those having a singi horse and active involvement in the gugs, shimit and other horse art shows.³⁶ At the beginning, the membership to this association was left to the patriots, but gradually it began to involve horse riders who were not patriots (Nibret, 2020, p. 49). Since Bahir Dar was part of Agew Meder Awraja, the people had participation in this association until it became an independent sub-province of Gojjam in 1956 (Ibid).

Horses and horse riders play various socio-cultural and economic roles in Awi zone, such as in annual religious celebrations, mourning ceremony, escorting guests, wedding ceremony, horse sport competition, plowing, thrashing, loading and transportation (Alemu, 2020, pp. 6–10). Except sport competition, which is practiced since 2009, the other roles of horses and horse riders are familiar in the study area for a long period of time (Ibid). For instance, horse riders escorting of higher government officials, distinguished guests, public holidays and peaceful demonstrations is practiced in the study area since the Imperial period. Emperor Haile Selassie I was escorted by the horse riders of Agew Meder in his visit to Bahir Dar in 1960. Ras Mengesha Seyoum, along with the royal family, was also escorted by the horse riders of the locality during their visit of Zimbiri Genet Kidane Mihiret (a church built by him) in 1967 and 2008. Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam was escorted by the horse riders of the locality during his visit of Peasants’ Association of Gumdire Kebele in Dangila Woreda in 1988.³⁷ Deputy Prime Minister, Ato³⁸ Wole Chekol was also escorted by the horse riders of Ankesha Woreda during his visit of Peasants’ Cooperatives at Urana and Mamasha Kebeles, and Ayehu State Farm in the late 1980s. Meskerem 2 (13 September), the downfall of the Imperial regime, was also celebrated annually with the escorting of the horse riders.³⁹

There was also a similar trend of escorting higher government officials at times of Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). For instance, the Deputy Prime Minister, Ato Demeke Mekonnen and Prime Minister Ato Hailemariam Desalegn were escorted by the horse riders of Banja Woreda during the commencement and graduation of the building of Injibara University in 2015 and 2018, respectively.⁴⁰ Ginbot 20 (May 28), the downfall of the Derg was also celebrated occasionally with the escorting of the horse riders at each woredas of Awi Zone. Support demonstrations are also undertaken occasionally with the escorting of the horse riders. During escorting, the horse riders voice different songs such as “Aymolo” and “Sengaw Abeba.”⁴¹ In connection to the escorting activity, there is also a tradition of offering beautifully decorated senga horse to distinguished guests. For instance, Colonel Mengistu Hailemariam was offered a senga horse as a gift in Dangila Woreda by chairman of Gumdire Kebele Peasants’ Association. In return, the colonial was said to have offered a war weapon (Kalashnikov) to the chairman of the association.⁴² During the anniversary of the 80^th year of Agew Horse Riders Association in 2020, Deputy Prime Minister, Ato Demeke Mekonnen was also offered a senga horse by the association.⁴³

In order to involve in various socio-cultural events, there are equipments to be fulfilled by the horse riders, such as koricha (saddle), leguame (bridle), gelas (saddle clothing), alenga (whip), zeng (long stick), gembalae (gaiter), sariyan-coat and gasha (shield). After the end of the escorting the Arc of the Covenant (Tabot) during the annual religious celebrations, the horse riders of each perish undertake horse art shows such as gugis and cholt/shimit. These and other horse art shows [such as selamiti/selamta (greating), dengilassi/dengelassa (dancing), sigri/sigria (hasty walk)] are also carried during the annual festival of the association, in front of the viewers and guests who come from different woredas of Awi zone and other invited governmental officials. The gugs show conducted in the aforementioned occasions is said to have the symbolic meaning of how Awi Agew fathers and forefathers fought and scored victory in the battle field against the Italians (see Figure 3) (Nibret, 2020, pp. 51–52). Due to its importance to the humanity, this culture is registered in 2022 by the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia) as national heritage under the title of “Agew Horse Culture.”

3.5.2. Major activities undertaken by Agew Horse Riders Association

Agew Horse Riders Association was established in Awi Zone, as a symbol of patriotic resistance against the enemy. As a result, gugs game is commonly practiced to commemorate the patriotic deed of the forefathers (Alemu, 2020, pp. 6–7). Hence, a horse rider who involves himself in the gugs show is referred as a hero.⁴⁴ From its foundation till the present time, this association performed various activities and passed through various stages. In the post-liberation Imperial and Derg⁴⁵ periods, apart from celebrating St. George’s day of 23 monthly and annually with a feast, the association engaged in various activities such as burying the deceased, reconciling the disputants, preventing theft, escorting guests and accompanying annual religious ceremonies and involving in wedding ceremonies (Alemu, 2020, pp. 6–10). During the Imperial Regime, the main requirement to the membership in the association was ownership of senga horse. The practice of involving the horse riders in various events was very weak. As a result, the number of the members to the association was small. At this time, there was no membership cash payment.⁴⁶

During the Derg period, unlike the Imperial regime, the members of the association increased, involving the horse riders in government and public holidays, such as the victory of Adwa (Yekatit 23/2 March), the downfall of the Imperial regime (Meskerem 2/September 13), patriots day (Miazia 27/May 5) was intensified.⁴⁷ However, in the initial years of the Derg period, an event occurred in Agew Meder which weakened the activities of the Agew Horse Riders Association. This was caused by the revolt of Simeneh Desta, member of the parliament during the Imperial period, against the military government (Derg). Simeneh organized the community of Dangia, Fagita, Kuakura Mikitil as far as Sekela and Damot against the government. The main point of agitation used by Simeneh to win the support of the people of the aforementioned areas was the Derg’s confiscation of rural land and its distribution to the landless. He was said to have agitated the people by saying “Mereetihen wosdoal. Ahun degmo mishthin amta yilhal”/’The military government has already taken your land. Now it will ask you to give your wife’/.⁴⁸

At this time, the military government organized the militia of Banja and Ankesha Woredas to support the government troops in their struggle against Simeneh Desta and his supporters. This event was said to have divided the highland woredas of Agew Meder having large number of horses and horse riders into hostile groups (one supporting Simeneh and the other supporting the military government). This was said to have drastically weakened not only the relationship of the peoples of the two areas but also the activities of Agew Horse Riders Association from higher to lower administrative hierarchy.⁴⁹ In order to solve this problem, at the beginning of 1980s, the military government sent a certain government official called Shibabaw Hiruy into Agew Meder. Shibabaw was indigenous to Dangia Mikitil. He collected elders from the two sides at Injibara town and the reconciliation of the two disputant groups was undertaken. The reconciliation contributed to the return of the activities of Agew Horse Riders Association into its previous position.⁵⁰

With the downfall of the Derg and its replacement by EPRDF in 1991, the activities of the association were highly weakened for about 13 years especially at central/awraja/level. This was due to the death and dispersion of its previous Aleqas and organizing bodies. However, in 2004/Nehassie 29, 1996 E.C./the Agew Horse Riders Association was newly organized at a meeting held in Injibara town, by representatives of horse riders from the then seven woredas of the Zone (Awi Zone Horse Riders Association, 2004, p. 1). Ten coordinators of the association were selected from the various woredas of the zone, and the position of Aleqa at zonal level was given to Getahun Gelagay (from Injibara). Starting from this time, the association began to perform its activities in an organized manner. At this time, written rules and regulations were also prepared to the association with the support of Awi Administrative Zone.⁵¹

The contemporary Agew Horse Riders Association is organized based on the objectives of undertaking the burial ceremonies of its members, escorting the annual religious celebrations, developing the awareness of its members to the development of the country and developing the culture of escorting respected guests coming into Awi Zone (Awi Zone Horse Riders Association, 2004, pp. 1–16). The association is structured at four different levels namely at Kebele, Qetena, Woreda and Zonal levels. At each level of structure, there are ten executive bodies having different functions within the association to serve for 4 years.⁵²

As already mentioned, since its foundation, the members of Agew Horse Riders Association continued the celebration of St. George’s Day of 23 monthly and annually with feast, especially at Qetena and Zonal levels. In some localities, the members of horse riders association celebrate other Saint Days, but with similar objective. These celebrations are considered by the society as a platform to undertake discussion on their common issues and problems.⁵³ Gradually, the celebration undertaken by the members of the association at Kebele level is also strengthened. In 2004, the association decided to have the annual celebration of horse riders by moving from one woreda to another.⁵⁴ However, since 2018, Agew Horse Riders Association has been celebrated at zonal level in Injibara town in the form of festival with the presence of large number of horse riders from each woreda, spectators and guests from different parts of the country (Awi Administrative Zone, 2018, p. 2). In this festival various horse arts are shown to the public and the guests, such as gugs (dressage), cholt/shimit (speedy riding), sigiri/sigria (walking hastily), digelassi/dengelassa (dancing) and selamitti/selamta (greating) (Alemu, 2020, p. 13) (see Figures 3 and 5).

Thus, the activities of horse riders association attained a unique feature in the post-2004 period, when much attention was given by the government to create conducive environment for the association. This time saw an increase in the number of the members’ horse riders association. Not only the owners of the senga horse but also the pedestrian (horseless) such as women and priests became the members of the association. Horse sport competition continued taking place at all levels of administration. Horse gugs and shimit shows are practiced more than any time. The demand for senga horse also increased more than any time. Merchants brought horses from North Shewa and Wagara (Gonder) in large numbers and sold in Awi Zone.⁵⁵ Girls also began to involve themselves in various horse talent shows (such as shimit) (See figure 4). This contributed to an increase in the membership of Agew Horse Riders Association from about 8500 in 2004 (Awi Zone Horse Riders Association, 2004, p. 1) to 62,221 in 2023.⁵⁶

Figure 5. Selamti/horse greeting undertaken to the guests during horse riders’ annual festival/.

Source: Injibara University (2022).

Figure 4. Awi Agew horse rider girls.

Source: Injibara University (2022).

4. Conclusion

The Awi Agew is one of the earliest inhabitants of the northern and central highland plateau of Ethiopia. They occupied most of the region until the seventeenth century but have been displaced or absorbed over most of this region by the Semitic speaker peoples. They are speakers of the languages of central Cushitic sub-family having crucial legacies of Ethiopian civilization, which today is represented by languages of Belen, Xhemtana, Qimant and Awi. Horses, which played a central part in Ethiopian life, were probably introduced into the country from the Nile valley during the second half of the second millennium B.C. The donkey, on the other hand, may have been domesticated independently both in Egypt and Ethiopia. As the Agew are one of the most ancient inhabitants of most parts of northern and central Ethiopia, their early introduction with horse breeding and training is evident, and gradually they learned to breed donkey with horse to produce mule. One of the distinct features of the Awi Agew is horse plough culture. The familiarity of the Awi Agew with horse plow is an age-old practice which remained common in the region long before the Great Famine (1888–1892).

Among the Awi Agew, horse ridership is a highly favored cultural value. Both men and women inhabitants of the highland areas of Awi Zone are owners of senga horse. The Agew Horse Riders Association was established in 1942 to commemorate the “role” of St. George’s Arc of the Covenant, which is symbolized by horse rider, at the victory of Adwa and that of the contribution of horses both in the first and second Italian invasion of Ethiopia. Since then the members of the association continued to celebrate St. George’s day of 23 monthly and annually. The association became symbol of victory against the enemy. Therefore, further research should be undertaken on various aspects of the horse culture of Awi Agew people and efforts shall also be made to exploit this horse culture as tourism resource and to register the age-old Agew Horse Culture in the list of world heritage.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my informants such as horse riders, heads of horse riders associations and local elders found at all levels of administration for providing me valuable information for the success of this research.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This research is not funded by any organization

Notes on contributors

Alemu Alene Kebede

Alemu Alene Kebede is Assistant Professor of Ethiopian Studies at Injibara University, Ethiopia. He is the author of ‘Horse Culture & Tourism Development: Towards Initiating Horse Tourism in Awi Zone, Northwestern Ethiopia’, Cogent Social Sciences (2020), 6: 1735116; ‘A Short Political Biography of Kibur Ato Haddis Alemayehu’, Journal of History and Culture, Vol. 7(1), PP. 28–37 (2015); ‘Opportunities and Challenges to Highland Bamboo-Based Traditional Handicraft Production, Marketing and Utilization in Awi Zone’, Northwestern Ethiopia, International Journal of History and Cultural Studies, Volume 4, Issue 4, PP. 57–67 (2018); ‘A Preliminary Overview of Trends of Oromo Studies in and outside Ethiopia’, International Journal of History and Cultural Studies (IJHCS), Volume 6, Issue 4, 2020, PP. 57–65; ‘Indigenous Pest Management Mechanisms in Ankesha Guagusa Wereda (District), Northwestern Ethiopia’, International Journal of Innovative Research & Development, Vol. 3, Issue 5, PP. 486–491 (2014).

Notes

1. Administrative unit below woreda/district/

2. A group of Kebeles

3. Serious debate was undertaken on the naming of the people under consideration in the National Symposium of Awi Language, Culture and History held in 2021 at Injibara Town. The first group of scholars preferred the word “Agew” which is the common name of central Cushitic speaking peoples and widely used in historical accounts. The second group of scholars preferred the word “Awi” to name after the vernacular language of the people. In order to reconcile this debate, I preferred to use the accommodative designation—“Awi Agew”, which is also used by Nibret (2020) in his M.A. Thesis.

4. Which is also spelled as Agaw in earlier and contemporary works.

5. See also https://ucanr.edu/sites/plantbreedingacademy/files/198376.pdf

6. The highest traditional title next to Nigus

7. Head of merchants.

8. Interview with Dagnaw Yenew, age 70, interviewed on 10 February 2017 in Chewsa Kebele; Alene Kassahun, Age 48, interviewed on 4 February, 2020 in Den Zuria Kebele.

9. Interview with Aboy Yismaw, age 80, Interviewed on 15 January 2017 in Ateta Kebele

10. Interview with Aboy Yismaw 15 January 2017; Mintesnot Agidie, age 81, interviewed on 20 January 2017 in Addis Kidam Town.

11. Interview with Belew Yohannes, age 78, interviewed on 8 January 2017 in Injibara Town.

12. This refers mainly to the present day Eastern Gojjam.

13. Interview with Aboy Yismaw, 15 January 2017.

14. A type of runner grass, having strong root. Two local words are written separated by slash line. The first is Awgni word (the language of the people understudy) and the second is Amharic word.

15. Interview with Atibyaw Mengist, age 62, interviewed on 3 February, 2020 in Gimjabet Town; Dagnaw Alene, age 86, interviewed on 10 February, 2017 in Chewsa Kebele

16. Interview with Alene Kassahun, 4 February 2020.

17. Interview with Mekuriaw Agegn, age 57, interviewed on 4 February 2020 in Den Zura Kebele

18. Interview with Dagnaw Yenew, 10 February 2017; Workineh Asres, age 45, interviewed on 12 February, 2017 in Injibara Town.

19. Ibid.

20. Interview with Ejigu Ayalew, age 65, interviewed on 17 February 2017 in Addis Kidam Town.

21. Interview with Dagnaw Yenew, 10 February 2017.

22. Interview with Alaqa Taye Berhanu, age 50, interviewed on 8 January 2017 in Injibara Town

23. Interview with Dessie Admas, age 50, interviewed on 7 January 2017 in Injibara Town.

24. Interview with Asefa Yirdaw, age 60, interviewed on 7 January 2017 in Injibara Town.

25. Interview with Atbyaw Mengist, 3 February 2017.

26. Interview with Gedefaw Muluneh, age 95, interviewed on 7 January 2017 in Injibara Town.

27. Informant: Aboy Yismaw, 15 January 2017; Mintesnot Agidie, 20 January 2017; Belew Yohannes, 8 January 2017.

28. Interview with Mintesnot Agidie, 20 January 2017; Atibyaw Mengist, 3 February 2020.

29. A letter from Agew Horse Riders Association to Awi Zone Culture and Tourism Department, Date 18/06/213 E. C., No. 00103.

30. Commander of the right.

31. Commander of the left.

32. Interview with Gedefaw Muluneh, 7 January 2017; Mintesnot Agidie, 20 January 2017; Gashe Desta, 20 January 2017; Belew Yohannes, 8 January 2017.

33. A title generally signifying learning.

34. Interview with Qes Manamno Dessie, age 70, interviewed on 1 January 2017 Den Zuria Kebele; Molalegn Beyene, age 53, interviewed on 1 January 2017 in Den Zuria Kebele; Beyene Abune, age 85, interviewed on 5 February, 2017 in Abramta Giyorgis Kebele; Molla Abebe, age 50, interviewed on 20 January 2017 in Tilili Town.

35. Interview with Gedefaw Muluneh, 7 January 2017; Alemayehu Teshale, age 50, interviewed on 15 February 2017 in Tilili Town.

36. Interview with Gashe Desta, 20 January 2017.

37. Interview with Mintesnot Agidie, 20 January 2017; Alene Kassahun, 4 February 2020.

38. Equivalent to Mr.

39. Mintesnot Agidie, January 2017; Yenew Endalew, age 68, interviewed on 3 January 2017 in Gimjabet Town; Atbyaw Mengist, 3 February 2020.

40. Interview with Mintesnot Agidie, 20 January 2017; See also Aymolo (2020, p. 27)

41. Interview with Alene Kassahun, 4 February 2020.

42. Interview with Yenew Endalew, 3 January 2017; Mintesnot Agidie, 20 January 2017.

43. Researcher’s observation (2020).

44. Interview with Atbyaw Mengist, 3 February 2017.

45. The military government which ruled Ethiopia from 1974 – 1991

46. Interview with Gashe Desta, 20 January 2017; Atbyaw Mengist, 3 February 2017.

47. Ibid.

48. Interview with Gashe Desta, 20 January 2017.

49. Ibid.

50. Ibid.

51. Interview with Mekuriaw Agegn, age 57, 4 February 2020.

52. Ibid.

53. Interview with Alene Kassahun, 4 February 2020.

54. Interview with Mekuriaw Agegn, 4 February 2020.

55. Ibid; Interview with Belew Yohannes, 8 January 2017

56. A speech delivered by Ato Tilaye Ayenew in the 83rd anniversary of Agew Horse Riders Association, 31 January, 2023).