Performing Joget Gamelan through archives and social memory

Abstract

This study explores the role of archives and social memory in preserving the Malay classical dance, Joget Gamelan. Using ethnographic methods, it examines the impact of archives and repertoire on this dance form. Joget Gamelan originated from Riau Lingga and later spread to the Malaysian states of Johor, Pahang, and Terengganu, where it was performed during royal ceremonies since the 19th century. Its popularity peaked in the 1920s when it was recorded in the Tengku Ampuan Mariam manuscript for preservation. However, as time passed, the dance relied on the “memory” and embodied experiences of master teachers such as Zaharah Abdul Hamid and Wan Salmah Sulaiman, as the manuscript was inaccessible. The preservation through time was dependent on the social memory of female teachers. This study employs Paul Connerton’s “social memory” to explore the changes in the dance form. The teachers reconstructed the dance to meet contemporary demands, and Diana Taylor’s concepts of “archives” and “repertoire” are used to investigate the reconstruction of Joget Gamelan for staged performances. This study does not criticize the current practice or identify shortcomings but rather seeks to investigate the “absences” in the form, which can be recovered through archival sources like old manuscripts, poems, and dance notations. By revisiting the past through these sources, the dance form is expected to reclaim its “forgotten” or “lost” aesthetics. The study argues that the intersection of social memory and archives is crucial in preserving the dance’s originality and re-connecting it with the tradition.

Keywords:

• Malay
• classical dance
• Joget Gamelan
• archives
• social memory

1. Introduction

This study examines Joget Gamelan, a prominent court dance performance in Malaysia, focusing on its historical significance and cultural context. Between 1821 and 1914, Joget Gamelan, known as Joget Pahang at the time, thrived as a court dance performance at Istana Pekan, Pahang (Ahmad, 2005, p. 3). Among the diverse repertoire of court dances in Malaysia, Joget Gamelan emerged as an exceptional art form that received patronage from the monarchs of Pahang and extended to the courts of Terengganu. Notably, Joget Gamelan exhibited distinctive characteristics primarily derived from exceptional cultural aesthetic values, meticulously crafted within the confines of the palace by its esteemed members, among whom Tengku¹ Ampuan Mariam holds a prominent position. Tengku Ampuan Mariam was the youngest daughter of Sultan Ahmad Mua’zzam Shah and Che’ Zubaidah, his third wife. Born in 1889 at Istana Pekan, Pahang, Tengku Ampuan Mariam passed away in Kuala Terengganu on 12 December 1975, at the age of 86. She has shown a deep interest in the arts and writing. Tengku Ampuan Mariam once immortalized the story of her wedding ceremony with Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah in the form of poetry. Tengku Mariam and her family are widely recognized for their inclination towards the arts, especially gamelan music. Tengku Mariam herself has demonstrated talent in the art of Joget Gamelan and received training in this field. She is also dedicated to leading training sessions for girls in Terengganu to learn the art of Joget Gamelan.

Tengku Ampuan Mariam has produced various manuscripts, poems, and written materials related to gamelan music, palace stories, and the journeys of Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah abroad. One of her notable works is a manuscript that encompasses descriptions and sketches of gamelan dances, which now serves as a reference in the history and tradition of Malay gamelan. Figure 1 depicts Tengku Ampuan Mariam, the youngest daughter of Sultan Ahmad Al-Mu’azzam Shah ibni Bendahara Seri Maharaja Tun Ali and Cik Zubaidah Abdullah.

Figure 1. Tengku Ampuan Mariam, choreographer of the Malay classical dance, Joget Gamelan (source: Sultan Abu Bakar Museum, Pahang).

Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s significant contributions to the realm of Joget Gamelan are indispensable, as demonstrated by her esteemed position as the choreographer of the Joget Gamelan repertoires, supported by well-documented archival records. Furthermore, she left a lasting legacy through her production of manuscripts, poems, and written materials that delved

into various facets of Gamelan, court narratives, and her journey abroad in the company of her consort, Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah. In Figure 2, Adnan Abdullah (Adnan), the caretaker of Tengku Ampuan Mariam and a former Joget Gamelan dancer at Istana Maziah, Terengganu, is depicted captivatingly performing Joget Gamelan at Istana Kolam in 1967. This performance is presented as an homage to Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s esteemed guests. Adnan was born in 1921 and passed away in 1982 in Terengganu. Adnan played an instrumental role in the development of Joget Gamelan, being the sole court dancer entrusted to teach it beyond the walls of the courts and sharing a close bond with Tengku Ampuan Mariam. Drawing on her memories and embodied experiences, Adnan imparted her knowledge by instructing more than five Joget Gamelan repertoires to dancers outside the court from the 1960s to the 1970s.

Figure 2. Adnan Abdullah is performing one of the Joget Gamelan repertoires at Istana Maziah, Terengganu. (source: National archives collection).

Joget Gamelan is an amalgamation of the terms “joget” and “gamelan.” Malaysian dance scholar, Marion D’Cruz (2011) categorizes Joget Gamelan as a genre of classical Malay dance and defines the word “joget” as “dance,” since in Malaysia, the indigenous term “joget” carries both the literal definition as a “dance” and a nuanced connotation for a dance style with distinct characteristics. The term “joget” is used by the Malays to signify a social dance performed in pairs by both men and women. In the early 20^th century, prior to the widespread adoption of modern terminology such as “tari,” traditional Malay words such as joget, main, ronggeng, and gencok were commonly used to describe the structured movement system inherent in Malay dances, often accompanied by specific songs. The term “gamelan” on the other hand, refers to traditional musical instruments that originated from Indonesia, particularly in the islands of Java, Bali, and Lombok. The term “gamelan” is derived from the Javanese word “gamel”, which means to strike or hit, and refers to the percussive nature of the ensemble. In the context of Malay gamelan in Malaysia, these musical instruments are employed to accompany dances performed within the palace. Malay Gamelan music traces its origins to the Javanese gamelan music prevalent in courts. In Malaysia, this music evolved within the courts of Pahang and Terengganu, establishing itself as a classical music tradition dedicated to enhancing court dances such as Joget Gamelan Ayak-ayak, Topeng, Geliong, Lambang Sari, Kunang-kunang Mabuk, Lantai Lima, Ketam Renjong, Perang Manggung, Nongga, Timang Burung, and Togok.

Joget Gamelan is a court dance form characterized by the graceful movements of young female dancers accompanied by a gamelan music ensemble, which comprises of male musicians. The court dance, as discussed by Hughes-Freeland (1991, p. 346), encompasses a wide array of styles and forms, serving as cultural symbols that reflect the traditions associated with each respective palace where they are performed. This dance form carries profound meanings, conveyed through stylized movements and executed with opulent costumes and embellishments. The expansion of gamelan beyond Java is intricately linked to the growth of wayang² performances, including wayang purwa, gedug, topeng,³ and wong.⁴ In Johor, gamelan performances play a vital role in complementing dances that predominantly draw inspiration from the captivating narratives of Panji stories, which have been widely disseminated through topeng and wayang wong performances. Within the Joget Gamelan tradition, each dance repertoire possesses its own distinct gamelan music accompaniment. For instance, the “Perang Manggung” dance repertoire is accompanied by the song of the same name, while “Joget Gamelan Lambang Sari” is complemented by the melodious strains of “Lambang Sari,” and so forth. The theatrical performances can be curated based on specific stories, incorporating a diverse range of dances and corresponding songs. As per the traditions of gamelan music, women take centre stage in the dance performances, while men skillfully play the gamelan musical instruments. There is a form of gendered division of labour; women emerged as performers while men played instruments or were musicians.

Several scholars have conducted extensive research on the history and repertoire of Joget Gamelan in Malaysia. Marion (1979, 2011) is the first scholar to delve into the deconstruction of movement phrases and motifs of this form, revealing the structured movement systems of Joget Gamelan Timang Burung and Ayak-ayak dance repertoires. In their comprehensive work, Mat Piah and Zainon Ismail (1986) made significant contributions by elucidating the Malay Gamelan in Malaysia, covering various aspects such as the art’s background, origins, history, sources, materials, and a descriptive analysis of the dance, all supported by meticulous research and credible references. The highlight of their book includes the editions of Joget Gamelan manuscripts penned by Tengku Ampuan Mariam in Terengganu. In their categorization of Malaysian music into five genres,⁵ leading ethnomusicologists, Tan Sooi Beng and Patricia Matusky (1998), positioned Gamelan music as a form of classical music that is intricately intertwined with the grandeur of the court setting. Ahmad (2005) expounded on the development of Joget Gamelan art, shedding light on the historical progression of the Malay Sultanate of Melaka and tracing its trajectory through the kingdoms of Johor, Riau Lingga, Pahang, and Terengganu, from the perspective of court art. Abdul Khalil Hassan, Teuku Umar Ilany Teuku Iskandar, and Mohamad Faliq Che Adeni (2021) have produced an invaluable reference in their book entitled “Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan” (The Basics of Malay Gamelan) for teachers, trainers, and students seeking to delve into the realm of Malay Gamelan. This book introduces the basics of playing Malay Gamelan for those eager to master this traditional art form. While there’s been significant research on Malaysia’s Joget Gamelan, a crucial gap remains regarding archival sources. These neglected materials like manuscripts and historical records are vital for safeguarding and understanding the repertoire. Exploring these archives can ensure Joget Gamelan’s cultural preservation and shed light on its historical and artistic importance for future generations.

This study examines the crucial role of archives, without undermining the importance of social memory in preserving the tradition of Joget Gamelan. Drawing upon Paul Connerton’s concept of “social memory,” this study examines the changes that have occurred within the Joget Gamelan tradition. Additionally, Diana Taylor’s concepts of “archives” and “repertoire” are employed to examine the reconstruction of Joget Gamelan for staged performances in modern contexts. It is essential to clarify that this study does not aim to belittle the current practice of the dance form or highlight its shortcomings. Instead, it seeks to explore the “absences” within the form, which can be retrieved through archival sources such as old manuscripts, poems, and dance notations. By revisiting the past through these archival materials, the study aims to enrich and fill the gaps in the understanding of Joget Gamelan. The research argues that an intersection between social memory and archives is necessary to safeguard Joget Gamelan from deviating “far” from its original aesthetics and to maintain its connection with traditions of the past. By exploring the interplay between social memory and archival sources, this study contributes to the ongoing efforts in preserving and revitalizing the beauty and essence of Joget Gamelan for future generations.

2. Methodology of study

This research employs a mixed approach—a combination of ethnographic study, historical study, and embodied practice, to gain a comprehensive understanding of the aesthetics and social cultural aspects of Joget Gamelan in Malaysia. Historical study helps to trace the historical development of Joget Gamelan in courts and later stages, through the analysis of historical archival sources such as manuscripts, poems, and dance notations. The research utilizes a combination of archival research and ethnographic research, through interviews with master teachers, and consultation of written sources obtained from archives and literatures, including books, magazines, and newspapers. The archival and library sources are obtained from the National Archives of Malaysia, State Libraries of Malaysia, Universiti Malaya Za’ba Memorial Library, Terengganu State Museum, and Sultan Abu Bakar Museum. The first author obtained oral history through interviews with dancers and musicians who have knowledge and experience in the Joget Gamelan tradition in Malaysia. The selected archival sources, literatures, and interviews were chosen and analyzed with a series of formulated research questions. We employed written and oral sources to analyze the development of Joget Gamelan in Malaysia, the history and genealogy of Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s family, as well as the ownership of this art form, archival sources and repertoire of Joget Gamelan that have been studied, and the informants’ experiences as Joget Gamelan dancers.

Additionally, the first author also engaged in participant-observation during the fieldwork. Observations were conducted at various cultural centres and public higher education institutions such as the National Department for Culture and Arts Malaysia (JKKN),⁶ Faculty of Creative Arts, Universiti Malaya,⁷ The National Academy of Arts, Culture, and Heritage of Malaysia (ASWARA),⁸ Warisan SaRi,⁹ and various venues associated with Gamelan art activities. In conducting this research on Joget Gamelan in Malaysia, ethical considerations have been considered, and the necessary approvals have been obtained. The research protocol has been reviewed and approved by the relevant ethics committee before commencing the study. Ethical approval ensures that the research complies with ethical guidelines and respects the rights and well-being of the participants. Regarding the conducted interviews, informed consent has been obtained from all participants. Prior to the interviews, the purpose of the study, the types of questions, and the voluntary nature of participation were explained to the participants. They were also informed about the confidentiality of their responses and their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any negative consequences. Accessing archives and obtaining approval for the research posed certain challenges. Other researchers may have encountered difficulties in accessing archives due to various reasons, such as limited availability of resources, bureaucratic procedures, or restricted access to specific collections. However, in this particular research, the first author successfully gained access to the archives and obtained the necessary materials with the assistance of Ramlah Latif, Assistant Director of Ethnology, Research and Documentation Sector, and Azuan Harun, Head of the Historical Section at the Terengganu Museum.

3. Findings and discussion

3.1. The significance of social memory in reconstructing Joget Gamelan

Social memory refers to how individuals or groups remember and understand the history, culture, and shared experiences of a society or community. I argue that social memory in the study of Joget Gamelan archives encompasses the ways in which beholders of tradition, culture bearers, or inheritors of the dance store and retrieve information about the past and how this information is used to transmit the dance to future generations. Culture bearers are responsible for ensuring that Joget Gamelan is passed down from generation to generation. In the context of court dance, culture bearers are individuals or groups who possess knowledge and experience of Joget Gamelan and play a role in preserving and transmitting this art form to future generations. Together, the concept of social memory and the role of culture bearers are essential in understanding and preserving the form of Joget Gamelan produced by Tengku Ampuan Mariam.

According to Connerton (1989),

“In particular, we may note that images of the past commonly legitimate a present socialorder. It is an implicit rule that participants in any social order must presuppose a sharedmemory. To the extent that their memories of a society’s past diverge, to that extent itsmembers can share neither experiences nor assumptions”. (p. 3)

We find that the use of culture bearers’ memory in the practice of Joget Gamelan is closely related to the concept of social memory described by Connerton above. In the practice of Joget Gamelan, this social memory is formed through the experiences and knowledge of previous generations regarding the dance’s history, movement structure, music, costumes, and jewellery. This knowledge is preserved and inherited through generations, forming a shared memory that serves as the foundation for the current practice of Joget Gamelan. We can see the importance of this shared memory in the practice of Joget Gamelan as it legitimizes the current social order. In this context, participants in the practice of Joget Gamelan must depend on shared memory as the only avenue. This shows that cultural practices are not rigid, frozen in time or museum pieces, but rather they are dynamic and change across time and space. The form is passed down or transmitted by the beholders of tradition, who largely depend on their embodied memory. There is an extremely high likelihood that certain nuances of the dances are forgotten or erased through time.

In this study, the importance of social memory in the practice of Joget Gamelan is translated into actual practice through the memories of Zaharah Abdul Hamid (Zaharah) and Wan Salmah Sulaiman (Wan Salmah), the master teachers. Zaharah, who is the step-grandchild of court dancer Adnan, provides valuable insights into the significance of Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s dance notations. Zaharah, born in 1949 in Pekan, Pahang, remains actively involved in the instruction of Joget Gamelan.The birth details of Wan Salmah indicate that she was born in Terengganu in the year 1944. They pass down the dance to the next generation of dancers. The first author is privileged to have learned the dance from the female master teachers. The initiation of the first author’s training under the guidance of a master teacher took place in the year 2007. We believe that the existing movement structure of Joget Gamelan today is the result of social memory and the knowledge of culture bearers, and it has been shaped through past performances. When the first author studied the Joget Gamelan repertoire from both culture bearers, she found that they taught it through memory, through the process of “rote learning”, recalled without referring to any manuscripts by Tengku Ampuan Mariam. Although we appreciate the process as it is very meaningful, simply relying on social memory can lead to certain limitations. One limitation is the loss of the originality or deeper meaning of the dance itself. Furthermore, social memory can alter through time, which means certain aspects of the dance could have been overlooked as there is no reference.

Connerton (1989) classified three different classes of memory claims, namely personal memory, cognitive memory, and habit memory. In the case of Zaharah and Wan Salmah, successors of Joget Gamelan, all three memories mentioned by Connerton can be identified. Firstly, personal memory plays a significant role in the composition and choreography of the Joget Gamelan repertoires by Zaharah and Wan Salmah. Personal memory refers to the recollection of their life history and past experiences related to their involvement in the art of Joget Gamelan. This memory encompasses their individual memories and experiences, influencing their creative decisions and interpretations of the dance form. Secondly, cognitive memory is also evident in the work of Zaharah and Wan Salmah. Cognitive memory involves the intellectual aspects of memory, such as the knowledge and understanding of the principles, technique, and aesthetics of Joget Gamelan. It encompasses their understanding of the dance form’s structure, musical elements, and cultural context, which informs their artistic choices and compositions. Lastly, habit memory plays a role in the Joget Gamelan repertoires created by Zaharah and Wan Salmah. Habit memory refers to the embodied knowledge and motor skills acquired through repeated practice and performance. It involves the muscle memory and ingrained movement patterns developed over time, enabling the dancers to execute intricate steps, gestures, and coordination with precision and fluidity.

We argue that all three mentioned memories by Connerton exist in the case of Zaharah and Wan Salmah because both successors of Joget Gamelan utilize all three memories in choreographing the Joget Gamelan repertoires. First, we analyze the personal memory of Zaharah and Wan Salmah by referring to the act of remembering, that encompasses their life history as one of the objects. This memory is referred to as personal memory because it is located and refers to past memories experienced by Zaharah and Wan Salmah during their involvement in the art of Joget Gamelan. In 2008, Zaharah taught several Joget Gamelan repertoires at ASWARA. Her embodied experience is an important source to understand movement motifs in each repertoire that still exists in her memory. Zaharah taught three dances namely Joget Gamelan Perang Manggung, Lambang Sari, and Geliong. For instance, in the case of Joget Gamelan Geliong, although it was initially vague in her memory and she couldn’t fully teach the dance at that time, the first author played the Gamelan songs that Zaharah brought, and she suddenly took a shawl and draped it over her shoulders and performed the dance. She began with an opening salutation and gradually continued until the closing salutation. It surprised the first author, who wondered how her body could recall all the dance movements and how her memory was refreshed after the Gamelan music was played. The first image, Figure 3, shows Zaharah recalling the arrangement of Joget Gamelan Geliong dance movements that she learned from Adnan. The analysis highlights the significance of court dance, specifically Joget Gamelan, as a vital component of cultural heritage. By studying traditional dances like Joget Gamelan, we can gain insights into cultural values, history, and contribute to the richness of global dance art. Zaharah’s personal memory serves as a valuable visual document, capturing historical and personal experiences within the realm of court art. Examining personal memory allows for diverse interpretations depending on individual perspectives. This emphasizes the importance of acknowledging and understanding personal memory as a source of knowledge and cultural preservation within the context of court dances like Joget Gamelan.

Figure 3. Zaharah Abdul Hamid performing Joget Gamelan Geliong at ASWARA in 2008 (source: Personal collection).

This experience demonstrates the importance of oral tradition transmission in preserving a society’s cultural heritage. In this regard, Zaharah, as the inheritor, also plays a crucial role as a teacher who brings the Joget Gamelan tradition to the next generation. However, the events witnessed by the first author also show that transferring cultural knowledge is not an elementary task and requires certain form of prompts. Furthermore, it also indicates that memory is transient, it can alter and lapse at any time while posing a huge challenge for efforts to preserve oral traditions. Oral tradition and the transmission of knowledge by master teachers play a vital role in shaping the repertoire and contemporary adaptations of Joget Gamelan. Rooted in court tradition, this art form relies on the expertise passed down orally from master teachers to future generations. Adnan, a court dancer, passed on her knowledge to her step-granddaughter Zaharah, who then shared it with her cousin Amira Mohamad. This paper explores how oral tradition and the memory of master teachers influence the Joget Gamelan repertoires in contemporary contexts. Preserving authenticity is a key aspect of this tradition, achieved through the oral transmission of knowledge by master teachers such as Zaharah and Wan Salmah. These teachers possess extensive knowledge and experience gained through years of training. Their memory encompasses essential elements of the dance, including technique, aesthetics, cultural context, and emotional nuances. By orally conveying this knowledge, they ensure the preservation of the authentic form of Joget Gamelan. It goes beyond mere steps and movements, as it also encompasses the cultural significance and historical background associated with the dance.

3.2. The archive: Tengku Ampuan Mariam manuscripts

This study posits that archival sources play a crucial role in the study and preservation of the Joget Gamelan repertoire in Malaysia. These sources, such as manuscripts, dance notations, poems, expert references, and images, provide valuable information about the origins and development of the Joget Gamelan repertoire in this country. The Joget Gamelan archive also serves as a tangible link to the past, enabling researchers and practitioners to gain a deeper understanding of the Joget Gamelan tradition. Archives refer to the collection of historical documents, artefacts, or other materials that have been preserved for reference and future research. These archival sources are used as one of the methods to identify, preserve, and provide records of lasting value.

According to Taylor (2003),

“The archive refers to a repository of records of past materials-documents, images, artifacts-often seen as a neutral source that can provide objective and accuraterecords of historical events. In contrast, the repertoire refers to the embodied practiceand knowledge contained in performance-such as dance, music, and theatre-that is transmitted through presentation. The repertoire is often associated with oral tradition and is passed down through generations through practice and experience”. (p. 19)

We draw on the concept to examine the Joget Gamelan archive where the sources comprise of manuscripts, poetries and dance notations. Repertoire, on the other hand, refers to the practices and knowledge transmitted through performances. In the context of dance and gamelan music, repertoire refers to a collection of dances or music compositions produced by dancers and musicians through practice and memory recollection, ready to be performed. Traditionally, the practices within the Joget Gamelan repertoire have been orally transmitted and passed down through generations through practical experiences. We believe both archives and repertoire are important in understanding and analyzing the content of Joget Gamelan produced by Tengku Ampuan Mariam.

On the other hand, we also need to consider the issue of ownership, questioning who has the access to these archival sources and how they can be tapped to enhance the pedagogy and performance of Joget Gamelan. Limited access or difficulties in reading written archival sources can pose barriers to their usage in enriching and reconstructing the dance. We were unable to view the original dance notation archives because we were unaware of the ownership of these archives. However, copies of these dance notations were kept at the Terengganu Museum as archival sources. The first author could only view the original manuscripts and jewellery paintings of Tengku Ampuan Mariam. Figure 4 displays a copy of the manuscript written by Tengku Ampuan Mariam. This excerpt is obtained from the Terengganu State Museum. Through Figure 4, there are 19 dance rules written, which, in our view, represent the fundamental rules that should be present in every Joget Gamelan repertoire. For the transcription of the Jawi script, please refer to Table 1. However, it is believed that not all practitioners refer to these rules and may be more focused on the description of the dance itself. While the first author is able to read this dance notation, this study still relies on the knowledge of the “elders” who understand the old Jawi script. Regarding the original document of this manuscript, we have been informed that it is held by one of the children of Tengku Ampuan Mariam, but it is uncertain which child specifically. According to Puteri Marlisa Shawaludin, who is a great-grandchild of Tengku Ampuan Mariam, all documents related to their ancestors were damaged due to a major flood that occurred at their home in Pahang.¹⁰

Figure 4. Manuscript of Joget Gamelan dance rules written by Tengku Ampuan Mariam in Jawi script. (source: Terengganu Museum).

Table 1. The transcription of the Joget Gamelan dance rules manuscript authored by Tengku Ampuan Mariam, rendered in the Jawi script

Paragraph	Transcription
1	Dancing begins with a graceful forward swaying step as the dance leader moves freely. All bindings should be loosened and released, yet the final dancer who steps forward also needs to quickly retreat backward.
2	This action leads to standing in all four corners, unless a quick retreat backwards is taken, the four corners will become disorganized. It is better to form a line with three people in the front, the arrangement will look neater.
3	Every time performing the “melemak” movement (body bent backwards), just like in dance or at the end of a dance, it’s the same as the “melayah” movement on the big gong.
4	Start by rotating the right hand at 1 1 On 2 2, stand with your knees, then rotate your hand when facing forward. At the end of the dance, the hand returns from right to left. Then, step left and right alternately, without switching left and right, bouncing back and forth from right to left.

This study emphasizes that these archival sources, although available but largely ignored, can be used to reconstruct the repertoire of Joget Gamelan because these contain rich content regarding detailed aesthetic and the structure of each dance. The biggest problem with accessing these archives is the language. These are written in Jawi.¹¹ However, not all individuals (of diverse backgrounds) are able to read the Jawi manuscripts. The reason for not all individuals being able to read Jawi manuscripts is due to a variety of factors. One factor is that the knowledge of reading and understanding Jawi script is not widespread among people from different backgrounds or cultural contexts. Jawi script is primarily used in Islamic contexts and is commonly associated with Malay language and culture. Therefore, the language poses a limitation and has hindered trainers, teachers, choreographers, and dancers from understanding the content of the manuscripts. Furthermore, although written archival sources such as dance notations and diary entries have the potential to be used in reconstructing the repertoire of Joget Gamelan, there are social, political, and cultural factors that influence their usage. Social factors include norms, practices, and values that impact the usage of archival sources. For Joget Gamelan, limited documentation may be available if the dance form is marginalized or lacks recognition in the community. Political factors involve government policies, funding, and support for the arts. Political contexts can affect archival preservation and accessibility, with restrictions or censorship hindering the availability of historical records. Political ideologies may also alter the interpretation of Joget Gamelan’s historical context. Cultural factors shape the understanding of Joget Gamelan. Beliefs, traditions, and identities influence the creation, usage, and value of archival sources. Oral transmission practices may limit written records, and cultural biases can lead to misinterpretations of the dance’s history and significance. Efforts are necessary to access and utilize archival sources critically and contextually. This approach is crucial for gaining a better understanding of the history and culture associated with Joget Gamelan.

Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s contribution to preserving and documenting Joget Gamelan through her notation system is noteworthy. While notations are not typically created by beholders of tradition, it is important to understand her intention behind this unique endeavour. By notating Joget Gamelan, Tengku Ampuan Mariam aimed to capture and preserve the intricate details and nuances of the dance form. According to our viewpoint, Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s intention in notating Joget Gamelan was likely to ensure the longevity of the art form. By providing a means for future generations to learn, understand, and perform the dance accurately, her notation system aimed to overcome the limitations of direct access to live performances. Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s notation system thus serves as a valuable resource for studying and transmitting the art form, contributing to its preservation and wider appreciation. This documentation was to ensure accuracy in dance movements and to help pass down the cultural heritage. This article examines Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s notation system by analyzing her manuscripts and studies various documented repertoires. The dance notation serves a crucial role in identifying the structure of Joget Gamelan and enable the process of deconstruction and reconstruction.

To thoroughly examine, research, and comprehend the movements contained in each repertoire of Joget Gamelan, one must inquire about the characteristics of the dance, its form, its place of creation, and its creator. This requires a meticulous analysis of the movement as it is performed. Understanding the movement also entails asking about the meaning of the dance and the movements contained within, as experienced by practitioners and communities who still practice Joget Gamelan. By simply observing the movement, as if examining the “text,” one can uncover details about the technique and structure of the dance. The notation referred in this study is dance notation, which records movement through the use of written symbols and illustrations of a person performing the movement. Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s written notation of Joget Gamelan captures the style of dance movements recorded through pictures and written descriptions in several books. This notation depicts the arrangement of dance movements, a list of dances and songs, the use of props, the gender of the dancer, and the attire and accessories used in Joget Gamelan. The notes on Joget Gamelan are written as explanations accompanied by illustrations. The Joget Gamelan notation is written in Jawi script in three parts, and recorded in books. Part one contains a description of the Joget Gamelan repertoire as depicted in Figure 5. Within the content, there is listed “This is the 21st Dance of Perang Manggung Song” which contains 21 descriptions of the movement structure of Joget Gamelan Perang Manggung. However, for the context of this article, Figure 5 functions as an illustrative example of a dance description reference. In this particular instance, Tengku Ampuan Mariam has documented 10 distinct movement structures. For a transcription of the Jawi script, kindly consult Table 2. Part two provides explanations accompanied by illustrations for each set of Joget Gamelan described in part one (refer to Figure 6). Figure 6 represents one of the dance sketches by Tengku Ampuan Mariam, specifically the Joget Gamelan Perang Manggung. We have identified a total of 26 sketches depicting dancers in various movements, clearly indicating that this dance is performed in pairs, including the depiction of two bird figures.

Figure 5. Description of the movement structure of Joget Gamelan Perang Manggung by Tengku Ampuan Mariam (source: Terengganu National Museum).

Figure 6. Joget Gamelan Perang Manggung notation based on Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s sketches (source: Terengganu National Museum).

Table 2. The transcription of the the movement structure of Joget Gamelan Perang Manggung by Tengku Ampuan Mariam

Structure	Description
1	After sitting down, stand up and “sembah”,^12 then “campak lenggang” to the right and left.
2	Stand with knees, “campak lenggang” left and right
3	Stand up and then “melemak.”
4	Walking, “campak lenggang”
5	Stand at the 4 corners to “melemak” by collecting wood
6	Depicting two individuals walking side by side. They are playing with a piece of wood using different techniques; one swings the wood from bottom to top, while the other swings it from top to bottom. Every time the sound of a “gong” is heard, they switch roles and repeat the movement two to three times.
7	“Melemak” then sit with one knee raised high. Dancers stand in four corners, holding wooden sticks, and tap knees while waving to gong sounds, switching and repeating twice.
8	Stand, walk, and play with the wood. To change position, place both hands on the waist, hold the wood as if gripping a dagger’s hilt; tap one foot against the other, do these two or three times.
9	The stabbed person lies flat, body facing the knees, hands stretched a bit forward from the face.
10	The living walk in a circle around the deceased.

Table 2 outlines the movement structure of “Joget Gamelan Perang Manggung” by Tengku Ampuan Mariam. The sequence involves various steps like “sembah,” “campak lenggang,” and “melemak.” Dancers engage with wood, walk, and switch roles to the sound of gongs. Two dancers use distinct wood-handling techniques, synchronized with “gong” sounds, and switch roles after each “gong” cue. Additionally, the dance portrays a struck individual and concludes with living participants encircling the supine figure, symbolizing a commemorative ritual. This analysis highlights the intricate choreography, symbolic elements, and cultural significance of the performance.

Through our observation, the sketches and descriptions depict the arrangement of dance movements, a list of dances and songs, the use of props, the gender of the dancers, as well as the costumes and accessories used in Joget Gamelan. The first author has studied the Joget Gamelan repertoire from an expert, Zaharah, through the oral tradition (social memory). One of the repertoires is the Joget Gamelan Perang Manggung. In the manuscripts and dance sketches recorded by Tengku Ampuan Mariam about this dance, they depict the dancer holding wood and flowers. However, when the first author learned it alongside Zaharah, they only used a scarf as a prop. Notes about Joget Gamelan are written in the form of explanations accompanied by illustrations. According to Siti Zainon Ismail, this Joget Gamelan notation is drawn using three colours: red, yellow, and green, and that Tengku Ampuan Mariam uses ink or pencil more commonly.¹³ The use of Jawi writing is indicative of older Jawi script, which at times utilizes abbreviated words and phrases. The Joget Gamelan archive has been instrumental in enhancing our understanding of this traditional dance form. The notations have provided valuable insights into its intricacies, historical development, cultural significance, and artistic elements. Exploring these notations enables researchers and practitioners to access a diverse knowledge repository, promoting the preservation and appreciation of Joget Gamelan as a cherished cultural heritage. Moreover, the archive exemplifies the importance of archives in safeguarding and transmitting invaluable cultural and historical information, fostering continuity and cultural heritage awareness for future generations.

Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s dance notation can be considered a great significance in preserving and transmitting the cultural heritage of gamelan dance in Southeast Asia. It ensures accuracy, consistency, and serves as a valuable resource for scholars and practitioners. The notation allows for the documentation, study, reconstruction, and technical training of choreography, dance forms, and movements. However, despite Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s efforts in documenting over 50 gamelan dances, certain dances remain unknown and not performed due to the absence of master dancers or missing musical notations. This poses challenges in preserving and performing certain gamelan dances. Master dancers are essential for transmitting the knowledge and training new performers, while musical notation guides synchronization and coherence. Without them, it becomes difficult to keep the dances alive and ensure their accurate rendition. Efforts should be made to identify and train new master dancers and retrieve or reconstruct missing musical notation to revive and preserve these dances for future generations. Collaboration between practitioners, scholars, and cultural institutions can play a crucial role in bridging these gaps and sustaining this rich cultural art form. This study thus aims to recover those repertoires by doing a close reading of Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s dance notation, in order to safeguard the cultural heritage of gamelan dance. Zaharah Abdul Hamid’s personal experience as a step-grandchild of the court dancer, Adnan sheds light on the significance of Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s dance notation. Her manuscript contains a total of 49 Joget Gamelan notations, and divided into two sections. 23 notations are given in the first section and 26 notations are given in the second section, making it a complete resource for practitioners, researchers and dance enthusiasts.

Archival sources also provide historical context, shedding light on the development and evolution of Joget Gamelan. Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s diaries, for instance, offer insights into the social and cultural aspects of the Terengganu community during the early 20^th century. These diaries contribute to our understanding of the occasions, significance, and connections of Joget Gamelan within the royal lineage and wider society. Integrating archival materials helps preserve the aesthetics and historical integrity of Joget Gamelan. By studying original sources, practitioners gain a deeper understanding of the dance form’s traditional aesthetics and ensure the maintenance of its essence and distinctive qualities in contemporary performances. Archival sources provide insights into the rules, movements, and principles of Joget Gamelan, enabling dancers, choreographers, and teachers to adhere to its authentic technique and styles.

Furthermore, the integration of archival sources counters the marginalization of Joget Gamelan repertoire by providing a reliable foundation for its study and practice. While there may be limitations and challenges in clarity and completeness, Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s repertoire sketches and descriptions remain invaluable guides for experienced practitioners. Recognizing the significance of archival materials allows practitioners to overcome these limitations and deepen their understanding of Joget Gamelan, promoting its appreciation and preservation.

However, the study points out that limited access to archival sources and difficulties in reading written materials, particularly those in Jawi script, pose barriers to their usage in enriching and reconstructing the dance. The lack of widespread knowledge of reading and understanding Jawi script among individuals from diverse backgrounds or cultural contexts hinders their ability to engage with the content of the manuscripts. Moreover, social, political, and cultural factors can influence the usage of archival sources. Norms, practices, and values within a community may impact the availability and recognition of documentation for marginalized dance forms like Joget Gamelan. Government policies, funding, and support for the arts can affect archival preservation and accessibility. Cultural factors, including beliefs, traditions, and identities, shape the understanding and value attributed to archival sources, potentially leading to variations and biases in interpreting the dance’s history and significance. The archival sources related to Joget Gamelan are of immense importance in understanding, studying, and preserving this traditional dance form. They provide historical context, shed light on its development and evolution, and contribute to the maintenance of its essence and distinctive qualities. By recognizing the significance of archival materials and addressing the challenges in accessing and utilizing them, the Joget Gamelan repertoire can be safeguarded and appreciated for future generations.

4. Conclusion

This study has highlighted the significance of Joget Gamelan and its preservation through the lens of social memory and oral tradition. By examining the historical and traditional context of this dance form, the research has made valuable contributions to the understanding of Joget Gamelan and has attracted interest from scholars, researchers, and individuals interested in Malaysian court heritage. The study has emphasized the role of social memory and archival sources in preserving and transmitting Joget Gamelan. It has demonstrated the importance of these factors in teaching, learning, and performance, providing insights into effective methods for cultural organizations. By striking a balance between creativity and preservation, contemporary interpretations of Joget Gamelan have been able to revitalize the art form and appeal to diverse audiences, ensuring its longevity. However, the study also acknowledges the challenges of preserving the essence of Joget Gamelan while incorporating innovation. This requires a deep understanding of its traditional form and cultural values. Despite these challenges, the preservation of Joget Gamelan is crucial in safeguarding cultural heritage, fostering cultural identity, and strengthening community bonds. Ultimately, the study calls for a harmonious balance between contemporary interpretation and traditional integrity to ensure the vibrancy of Joget Gamelan for future generations. It urges collective responsibility in celebrating and safeguarding this cherished dance form, recognizing its significance as a cultural treasure.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Postgraduate Office Faculty of Creative Arts Universiti Malaya [NA].

Notes on contributors

Jafar Norsafini

Jafar Norsafini is a Malay Classical dancer, choreographer and researcher who holds a Diploma and Bachelor of Dance from ASWARA. She is a full-time lecturer at ASWARA’s Faculty of Dance since 2011. She is now completing her Ph.D at the Faculty of Creative Arts, Universiti Malaya.

Thiagarajan Premalatha

Thiagarajan Premalatha is a Senior Lecturer and the Deputy Dean (Undergraduate) at the Faculty of Creative Arts, Universiti Malaya. She received her Ph.D in Critical Dance Studies from the University of California Riverside, USA, in 2012. Through her doctoral study, she pioneered the study of Indian dance practices in Malaysia, emerging as a leading academician-scholar in the country.

Notes

1. “Tengku” is an honorific title used in certain parts of Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia. It is used to address or refer to individuals of noble or royal lineage. In some cultures, “Tengku” is equivalent to the title “Prince” or “Princess” and is given to members of royal families, especially those who are not in direct line for the throne. It is a sign of respect and recognition of their royal status.

2. Wayang, a traditional form of puppet theatre originating in Indonesia, has played a significant role in the expansion of gamelan music beyond the island of Java. This expansion is closely intertwined with the development of various forms of wayang performances, such as wayang purwa, gedug, topeng, and wong. The diverse manifestations of wayang have contributed to the dissemination and enrichment of gamelan music and cultural traditions across regions.

3. Topeng is a traditional form of masked theater or dance-drama that originated in Indonesia, particularly in Java and Bali. The word “topeng” itself means “mask” in Indonesian. In topeng performances, the actors wear elaborate masks that represent various characters, such as gods, heroes, demons, or animals. The masks are intricately crafted and often express specific emotions or personalities. Topeng is usually accompanied by music, singing, and dance movements, creating a vibrant and theatrical spectacle. The performances often depict mythical stories, historical legends, or moral teachings, and they are considered an important cultural tradition in Indonesian society.

4. Wayang Wong, also known as Wayang Orang, is a traditional Javanese dance-drama that combines dance, music, and acting. It is performed by human actors and dancers rather than using puppets like in other forms of wayang (shadow puppetry). Wayang Wong literally translates to “human puppet” or “human shadow”

5. Tan Sooi Beng and Patricia Matusky (1998) categorize Malaysian music into five genres, namely classical music, folk music, syncretic music, popular music, and contemporary art music.

6. JKKN stands for Jabatan Kebudayaan dan Kesenian Negara Malaysia. It is a government department in Malaysia that is responsible for the development and promotion of culture and the arts in the country. JKKN plays a key role in preserving and promoting Malaysia’s cultural heritage, supporting artistic and creative activities, and fostering the growth of the culture and arts industry. The department organizes various programs, exhibitions, performances, and initiatives to showcase Malaysia’s diverse cultural expressions and support the artistic community.

7. The Faculty of Creative Arts at the Universiti Malaya is an academic department within the university that focuses on the study and practice of various creative disciplines. It offers undergraduate and postgraduate programs in fields such as visual arts, performing arts, design, multimedia, film and television, music, and creative writing.

8. ASWARA stands for Akademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Kebangsaan Malaysia, which translates to the National Academy of Arts, Culture, and Heritage of Malaysia. ASWARA is a prestigious institution of higher learning in Malaysia dedicated to the education and training of students in various artistic disciplines. ASWARA offers undergraduate and postgraduate programs in fields such as music, dance, theater, visual arts, traditional arts, cultural studies, and arts management. The academy aims to preserve, promote, and develop Malaysia’s artistic and cultural heritage while nurturing the talents of aspiring artists.

9. Warisan SaRi is a privately-run center for the preservation and development of dance and Gamelan music. The name Warisan Sari is an abbreviation of the names of the couple, “Sa” (Faisal) and “Ri” (Ariza).

10. Puteri Marlisa Shawaludin, personal communication, October 6, 2020.

11. Jawi means Arabic letters with several additional letters used to write in the Malay language.

12. In the context of dance, “sembah” refers to a gesture or movement that involves bowing, showing respect, or paying homage. It is a term often used in traditional or cultural dances where performers use specific body movements, postures, and gestures to convey reverence, gratitude, or acknowledgment. The “sembah” movement can vary in form and intensity depending on the cultural and dance tradition being performed.

13. Siti Zainon Ismail. Personal communication. March 19, 2022.