Allegorical depictions of the spiritual life of man in Robinson Crusoe (1719): An Islamic perspective

Abstract

This study aims to read Daniel Defoe’s novel Robinson Crusoe from an Islamic perspective, arguing that the novel ‒ though set in a Western context ‒ is rich with the foundational principles of Islam. The study uses the comparative analytical method to compare and contrast the presence of these principles prevalent in Christianity and Islam and portrayed in the novel through the disobedience, repentance, solace in spirituality, and ultimately, the triumph of the individual, the protagonist, Robinson Crusoe. The paper thus demonstrates the extent to which an Islamic reading of Defoe’s classic text fosters greater consciousness of the close affinity between Christianity and Islam, breaking the wall and bridging the divide. The analysis, in other words, highlights a range of Christian ethics, such as sin/disobedience, repentance and providence, that the story presents and are also the basic principles in Islam. In this sense, the study further reveals that Crusoe, as is evident in these readings from a new perspective, is not a unique man, he is rather representative of mankind which is also the case with religion and literature that use man as an epitome of God’s will which ensures poetic justice, though it may come after much suffering.

Keywords:

• christianity
• disobedience
• Islamic perspective
• moral values
• repentance
• sin
• spirituality

Behold, to obey is better than

sacrifice, and to hearken than the

fat of rams.—1 Samuel 15:22

1. Introduction

Robinson Crusoe, has continued to be one of the most widely read and influential novels of all times. It has been considered to be amongst the first English Novels (Floor 2009, 9) rich with ideas that dwell on a wide range of topics, particularly, those pertaining to religiosity and morality. Arguably, the story easily lends itself to two levels of analysis, namely, theological and practical. When read from the theological point of view, we conclude that man’s extreme aspiration is the cause of sin (Hasan, 2009). In this novel, Daniel Defoe appears to echo Milton’s Paradise Lost in which the story of Adam and Eve is used as emblematic of the correlation of disobedience and punishment. That is to say, like Milton, “Defoe attempted to justify God’s ways to man” (Hunter, 1962, 88). Adam and Eve were banished from Heaven because of their aspirations and disobedience to God. Indeed, the story of Adam and Eve is set as a warning for all human beings of the fatal consequences of disobedience either of God or the givers of earthly birth, one’s parents.

Of Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit,

Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast

Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,

With loss of Eden … (Milton, 1667).

By the same token, Robinson Crusoe is cast away on a deserted island due to his aspirations that cause him to sin by disobeying his father who can be read as an earthly version of his spiritual father, i.e., God. As Hasan (2009) notes, in the Puritan family structure, the father was regarded as God’s deputy; hence, in rejecting his father’s advice, Crusoe is committing a sin no less than that of Adam and Eve when they disobeyed their heavenly father. For Crusoe, as for Adam, and Eve, disobedience is the outcome of restlessness and discontent with the station God assigned to them. Perhaps, this is why Hasan considers Robinson Crusoe as a “great religious allegory” in English literature (Lit. Essays, 2009).

Crusoe commits the sin of disobedience to his father and God. He also succumbs to the sin of pride, greediness, and of running away from the island where destiny imprisoned him. For many, perhaps most readers, Crusoe’s many references to God, to providence, to sin are extraneous to the real interest of the novel (Eder, 2011; Floor, 2011). Readers through the nineteenth century have read Robinson Crusoe in the light of religion. For example, a reviewer for the Dublin University Magazine called the novel “a great religious poem, showing that God is found where men are absent” (Hasan, 2009). Hasan further claims that Robinson Crusoe is a spiritual autobiography and “a great religious poem”. His claim is based on Defoe’s statement from the “Preface” to the novel that his intention is “to justify and honor the wisdom of Providence in all the variety of our circumstances” (Lit. Essays 2009). Hasan’s religious point of view is supported by Greif (cited in Floor, 2011) who describes the religious aspect of the novel and further argues that the story of Robinson Crusoe “is primarily an account of a spiritual experience” (18). What makes the parallel between Christian and Islamic values all the more striking is the fact that “the first Arabic novel” dated as early as the twelfth century, The Improvement of Human Reason: Exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yokdhan, a story that carries many of the same values as Robinson Crusoe (Baeshen, 1986).

Based on the views above, this study further argues that Robinson Crusoe can be read as an allegory of what happens when a man turns away from God. Unlike most Christians at the time, Crusoe is not spiritually attached to God and not aware of his providence. But after dreaming one night of a strange figure scolding him for not repenting, Crusoe turns to Christianity on the island and becomes a regular reader of the Bible. This brings him comfort and encouragement to carry on his life on the island. He feels no more alone on his island; because he can converse with God through prayer. Hence, Christianity offers Crusoe a way to make sense of his life and its various twists and turns. Moreover, he realizes his original sin towards his father, for which he was then punished by being taken as a slave and then, by being shipwrecked. Fortunately, however, he was blessed and saved by God, ending up on the island with enough provisions to survive.

2. Literature review

Daniel Defoe’s classic masterpiece Robinson Crusoe invites a wide range of critical engagements. The rich complexity of the novel is particularly evident in the variety of studies and research conducted on its various dimensions. For instance, Duzer (2006) traces the history and development of the island-book in western civilization, underscoring the fact that Daniel Defoe in Robinson Crusoe created a new genre of island book, the Robinsonade, which is very well suited to modern western individualism, and the genre continues to be practiced even today (154).

Postcolonial criticism and theory attach great weight to Daniel Defoe’s novel Robinson Crusoe as a typical example of imperial, colonial power of subjugation of colonized countries and deposed peoples. Saeed (2013), for instance, examines colonial representations in Robinson Crusoe, asserting that colonial discourse reveals the foreign culture as dark and depraved. As Saeed explains, the novel asserts and reasserts Christian morals and British superiority, hence domination over the island’s original inhabitants. In much the same vein, Gómez (2010) attempts to de-sediment the philosophical undercurrent of Robinson Crusoe, demonstrating how Daniel Defoe explores the relationship between the natural man and man as shaped by civilization. Yousofi et al. (2014), on the other hand, regarded Robinson Crusoe as a utopian novel since it satisfies, according to them, utopian criteria (191).

Many critics, however, focuses on the religious aspect of this novel. Floor (2011), for instance, claims that “religion plays an important role in the plot of Robinson Crusoe”. In his thesis, Puritanism in Robinson Crusoe, Floor focuses on the religious features in Robinson Crusoe, particularly Robinson’s relation to God, comparing this with the author’s religious life and the religiosity of society in those days. He argues that Robinson Crusoe’s “perception of God represents Defoe’s spiritual life and that of the religious context of eighteenth-century Puritanism” (3). Floor concludes that “the novel, if not totally religious, is at least totally penetrated with religion” as the text is so rich with “explicit and implicit biblical references in the novel” (27). In his essay, Christian Ethics in Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, Andi Silitonga (2019) further stresses the religious concerns of the novel, in which, according to him, the writer attempted to convey some messages pertaining to Christian ethics (265). Alshammari (2016), on the other hand, though he admits the religiosity of the story, argues that the story shows how “religion can be used as a means to implement the principles of colonialism”. Alshammari puts it thus: “Religion and civilization can be used as tools to justify colonial expansions”. Religion, according to him, dominated the social hierarchy and class structure in society at that time (4). Indeed, Crusoe, due to his sheltered childhood and his good education, probably nurtured in religious aspects, too. Throughout the whole novel there are consistent instances of allusions and parallels to contents of the Bible, which also strengthens the role of religion and begins right at the beginning of the book with the description of the disagreement between him and his father (Eder, 2011).

Hinojosa (2012), however, considers Robinson Crusoe as a spiritual autobiography. In his reading of the novel, he claims, Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe virtually imitates Augustine’s conversion plot in Confessions as “Both texts are spiritual autobiographies that narrate the trajectory of the individual self in relation to God using similar motifs”. Hinojosa further states that both texts center on a Bible-reading conversion scene in which the “true self” is discovered in the moment of reading (641). According to him, both texts take on a function similar to the Bible’s function within the characters’ plots, providing opportunities for readers to gain moral and spiritual knowledge and thereby to allow their very selves to be radically altered (642).

As much as Defoe’s novel is about “Robinson’s literal, physical journey, it is also about his more metaphorical, spiritual journey toward Christianity” that “offers Robinson a way to make sense of his life and its various twists and turns” (litcharts.com, 2023). As Hunter (cited in Eder, 2011) succinctly describes it, “Robinson Crusoe is structured on the basis of a familiar Christian pattern of disobedience-punishment-repentance-deliverance, a pattern set up in the first few pages of the book”.

However, in spite of the voluminous studies conducted on Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, none of those studies examined, in depth, the novel from an Islamic perspective, focusing primarily on those moral values/ethics shared by both Christianity and Islam and which have been significantly highlighted in the story. That is to say, the lack of scholarly studies that highlight the Christian ethics treated in this text and their equivalent Islamic moral values, justifies the need to conduct this study.

3. Research problem & methodology

The marked lack of scholarly Islamic perspectives on Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe justifies revisiting that classic text. The present paper is a comparative study of the close correlation of certain moral values such as spirituality, individualism, disobedience and repentance, in Christianity and Islam, through the prism of Robinson Crusoe. It applies the comparative analytical method to examine Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (Defoe, 1719) from an Islamic perspective, focusing primarily on those concepts, which have been strongly emphasized in the story. It demonstrates the extent to which an Islamic reading of the novel can provide new insights, arguing that there exist profound grounds of similarity in the principles and moral values of Islam and Christianity, particularly in the domain of the moral character of the human being. It analyzes the Christian religious values that are embodied in the novel, and compares them theologically as viewed in Quran/Islam.

The study, therefore, is simply an attempt to identify the religious principles that Defoe’s novel Robinson Crusoe highlights as an embodiment of the Christian ethics. It intends to unearth how an Islamic perspective can enrich our understanding of the novel as a literary text and as a cultural embodiment. It aims to identify certain Christian ethics through the analysis of the novel and how those ethics constitute basic principles in Islamic tradition, based on the Quran. The critical objective of the present study, thus, is informed by the following questions:

What does an Islamic reading of Daniel Defoe’s novel Robinson Crusoe add to our understanding of the novel?

What new possibilities of thinking does an Islamic reading of classic English literature offer to debates on Islam and Christianity?

To what extent do the religious/Christian ethics depicted in the story mirror the basic moral values in Islam?

The analysis and interpretations of the story are informed by concepts, largely drawn from Islamic scholarly traditions of theology and hermeneutics. First of all, a close reading of the novel is executed, highlighting textual features and formal intricacies. An integration of theory and novel is the central or core aspect of the study, identifying the extent to which the humanist values that the novel promotes are part and parcel of Islam as a religion, a culture, and a civilization. The study, thus, moves from a close textual analysis to wider considerations of socio-cultural questions, opening up fresh avenues for critical explorations.

4. Lack of spirituality, life of sin: lost in the wilderness, human misery

Most of the story of Robinson Crusoe revolves around the relationship between sin and human misery. In other words, the story throughout deals with sin and repentance and the misery of human beings in between. In this sense, it can be argued that the story of Robinson Crusoe is no more than an allegory of the spiritual life of humanity embodied in the character of Robinson Crusoe. As Wilson puts it “the novel can’t be understood outside of its religious framework: the journey is a spiritual biography or allegory meant to educate the reader and invite them to turn their souls to God” (27). Crusoe, the young boy has a stable life at the middle station of life. However, he has never been satisfied with the kind of life he has. His aspirations cause what is considered to be his “original sin”, disobeying his father- a God figure and he takes to the sea without his consent, at the spiritual plane, it means forging ahead without God’s blessings. This act leads to a life-long agony which starts as soon as he leaves his father’s house. “Never any young adventurer’s misfortunes, I believe, began sooner, or continued longer than mine. The ship was no sooner out of the Humber than the wind began to blow and the sea to rise in a most frightful manner; … ” (4). Much is at stake as there is a strong relevance between his sin and suffering given that though he is a Christian, Crusoe lacks spirituality. Though he is saved on many occasions, he never prays to God or goes back to his father’s house. Instead, he continues his adventures and gets enslaved for a couple of years before he is being rescued and delivered to Brazil. Unfortunately, he leaves his plantation farm in Brazil to go back to the sea where he was shipwrecked and cast away on a desert island, lived and suffered for around 28 years.

Reading the story through Islamic lens, leaves one astonished at the close similarity of the moral values in Islam and Christianity. Crusoe, for instance, continues to suffer for such a long time because of his disconnection with God or lack of spirituality that the Christian doctrine strongly emphasizes. This has been emphasized by the fiery angelic figure that comes to Crusoe during a feverish hallucination and says, “Seeing all these things have not brought thee to repentance, now thou shalt die; … ” (70). This situation clearly indicates that Crusoe’s suffering is borne out of his lack of faith in God. Indeed, the apostle Paul enforced the same when he wrote, “If any man love [s] not the Lord Jesus, let him be Anathema” (1Co 16:22), (Pink, 1998, 5). Pink Simply puts it, the sum of God’s Law is, “Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might” (Deu 6:5); and the Lord Jesus repeated it in Matthew 22:37. Another theory from The New Testament is from Matthew 22:36–39 (New International Version NIV): “Teacher, which is the greatest commandment in the law?” Jesus replied:“Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. This is the greatest commandment” (Silitonga, 2019, 266). Silitonga, notes that “all Christian Ethics based on faith in God that is implied in Jesus Christ. Christian Ethics is the response to God’s love who saves us. Ethical life is the way to give the expression of gratitude of His grace and life in relationship with God” (266).

Similarly, Islamic religion strongly stresses the importance of the spiritual relationship of man with God (Allah) in order to enjoy a peaceful life. On the contrary, misery and suffering would accompany those who go astray from the path of Allah. In Quran, for example, Allah Subhanahu wa ta’ala says,

(20:124) وَمَنْ أَعْرَضَ عَنْ ذِكْرِي فَإِنَّ لَهُ مَعِيشَةً ضَنكاً وَنَحْشُرُهُ يَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ أَعْمَى

“And whoever turns away from My remembrance indeed, he will have a depressed [i.e., difficult] life, and We will gather [i.e., raise] him on the Day of Resurrection blind” (Quran Saheeh, 2004, 305). Indeed, many of the Quranic verses stress the significance of having a strong relationship with God, the Almighty. Allah Subhanahu wa ta’ala also says,

(7:56) وَلَا تُفْسِدُواْ فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ بَعْدَ إِصْلَٰحِهَا وَٱدْعُوهُ خَوْفًا وَطَمَعًا ۚ إِنَّ رَحْمَتَ ٱللَّهِ قَرِيبٌ مِّنَ ٱلْمُحْسِنِين

And cause not corruption upon the earth after its reformation. And invoke Him in fear and aspiration. Indeed, the mercy of Allah is near to the doers of good. (Quran Saheeh, 2004, 142)

Another verse of the Quran that stresses the significance of the relationship with God:

أَمَّنْ هُوَ قَٰنِتٌ ءَانَآءَ ٱلَّيْلِ سَاجِدًا وَقَآئِمًا يَحْذَرُ ٱلْءَاخِرَةَ وَيَرْجُواْ رَحْمَةَ رَبِّهِۦ ۗ قُلْ هَلْ يَسْتَوِى ٱلَّذِينَ يَعْلَمُونَ وَٱلَّذِينَ لَا يَعْلَمُونَ ۗ إِنَّمَا

(39:9) يَتَذَكَّرُ أُوْلُواْ ٱلْأَلْبَٰبِ

‘Is one who is devoutly obedient during periods of the night, prostrating and standing [in prayer], fearing the Hereafter and hoping for the mercy of his Lord, [like one who does not]? Say, “Are those who know equal to those who do not know?” Only they will remember [who are] people of understanding’ (Quran Saheeh, 2004, 456).

These verses above, and many more clearly establish that the wiser man would be the one who maintains an ideal relationship with Allah, as only those who follow the right path shall enjoy Allah’s providence and have peace in life and hereafter.

In this sense, it is worthy to say that Robinson Crusoe’s disobedience is considered a major sin in both Christianity and Islam, for which the sinner rightly deserves God’s punishment. In Christianity, for instance, a godly family, according to Stockton (2015), comprises adult children who show love and respect for their father and mother. ”[h]onor thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee” (Exodus 20:12). Stockton states that “Honoring parents appears first in the list of directives on the highway of holiness” (23). “Honoring parents is a requisite listed by Jesus for one who desires to enter the kingdom of God. Do you want to go to heaven? Honor your father and mother,” said Jesus (Stockton, 24). Stockton further elaborates the consequences of disobedience saying, “When a man fails to honor his parents, he signs his own death warrant”. Hence, “Whoever curses his father or his mother shall be put to death” (Exodus 21:17). Thus, God blesses the people when their parents are honored, but the people are punished when they do not (Stockton, 24).

In “The Scripture and Obedience”, it is further stated that “Godliness is profitable unto all things” (1Ti 4:8). By obedience we purify our souls (1Pe 1:22). By obedience we obtain the ear of God (1Jo 3:22), as disobedience is a barrier to our prayers (Isa 59:2; Jer 5:25). By obedience we obtain precious and intimate manifestations of Christ unto the soul (Joh 14:21). As we tread the path of wisdom (complete subjection to God), we discover that “her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace” (Pro 3:17). “His commandments are not grievous” (1Jo 5:3), and “in keeping of them there is great reward” (Psa 19:11), (10–11).

In the same vein, honoring parents and respect for relatives is an important aspect of a Muslim’s expression of faith. Obedience for parents, in other words, makes one worthy of Allah’s Grace, in life and hereafter. It has been clearly stated in Quran as Allah Subhanahu wa ta’ala says:

(17:23) وَقَضَىٰ رَبُّكَ أَلَّا تَعْبُدُوا إِلَّا إِيَّاهُ وبالوالدين إِحْسَانًا

And your Lord has decreed that you not worship except Him, and to parents, good treatment. Whether one or both of them reach old age [while] with you, say not to them [so much as], “uff,” and do not repel them but speak to them a noble word. And your Lord has decreed that you not worship except Him, and to parents, good treatment. Whether one or both of them reach old age [while] with you, say not to them [so much as], “uff,” and do not repel them but speak to them a noble word (Quran Saheeh, 2004, 265)

Hence, due to its value, Allah made obedience for parents an essential part of one’s faith and worship to Him and clearly stated so in Quran. On the other hand, misery and suffering would accompany those who show disrespect for their parents.

Apart from stressing the cost of sin (disobedience), the story also emphasizes the worthiness of repentance as a way to strengthen the spiritual life of man. Indeed, it is introduced as a fundamental religious principal that brings peace and comfort to the mind and soul. As Macy (2011) notes, Defoe stresses the importance of repentance, as well as the message of being thankful for the many blessings of God. These crucial aspects of religion are brought forth through Crusoe’s many revelations during his discovery of God. The inclusion of this reference helps us to understand the message that God will always be there to accept us with open arms even when we have turned our backs or lost sight of Him. Defoe uses the message of this parable as an overriding message for the novel as a whole (12). For example, Crusoe’s misery is a consequence of his “original sin” for which he leads a miserable life. His life, however, changes altogether when he reads the bible. Reading the bible awakened his soul and mind to “the wickedness of [his] past life” (75).

when I shall add, that through all the variety of miseries that had to this day befallen me, I never had so much as one thought of it being the hand of God, or that it was a just punishment for my sin—my rebellious behaviour against my father—or my present sins, which were great—or so much as a punishment for the general course of my wicked life”. (70)

This realization leads him to repent, which ultimately brings him comfort and peace. “I opened the chest, and found what I looked for, the tobacco; and as the few books I had saved lay there too, I took out one of the Bibles which I mentioned before, and which to this time I had not found leisure or inclination to look into” (73). He continues and admits:

But before I lay down, I did what I never had done in all my life—I kneeled down, and prayed to God to fulfil the promise to me, that if I called upon Him in the day of trouble, He would deliver me … But, leaving this part, I return to my Journal. My condition began now to be, though not less miserable as to my way of living, yet much easier to my mind: and my thoughts being directed, by a constant reading the Scripture and praying to God, … . (74–76)

As Khalid Sultan notes, after Crusoe’s repentance of his sin, he realises the fact that he has been “treated by the creator most mercifully, and that God has sweetened his bitter life on the island with His generosity” (208). Pink puts it thus, “when God really pardons a sinner in the court of his conscience, under the sense of that amazing grace the heart is purified, the life is rectified, and the whole man is sanctified”. Pink adds, said the Lord Jesus, “He that hath my commandments, and keepeth them, he it is that loveth me” (Joh 14:21). Not in the Old Testament, the gospels, or the epistles does God own anyone as a lover of Him save he who keeps His commandments” (7).

Thus, repentance is strongly emphasized in the story, regardless of the sin committed and its time. In doing so, the story seems to advocate repentance as a value that is supposed to wash off all previous wicked deeds and which ultimately leads to strengthening the spirituality of the individual.

I have since often observed, how incongruous and irrational the common temper of mankind is, especially of youth … that they are not ashamed to sin, and yet are ashamed to repent; not ashamed of the action for which they ought justly to be esteemed fools, but are ashamed of the returning, which only can make them be esteemed wise men. (9)

As Macy notes, Defoe is able to create this captivating journey by first portraying Crusoe as a man of economy. He presents Crusoe as being so disconnected from God and all things spiritual to demonstrate that this lack of religion leads to having no purpose and ultimately, no hope of prosperity. Defoe then, incorporates the theme of religion into the novel in order to portray Crusoe’s religiosity and show the importance and need for God. Once Crusoe realizes his need for repentance, he endures a great spiritual development, which shows him that he needs God to truly prosper in life and escape the island (2011, 18–19).

Likewise, as far as Islam is concerned, the door of repentance, according to Prophet Mohammad (Peace and Prayers be upon Him), remains open until the last minute of one’s life. He puts it simply in these words, “Every son of Adam commits sin, and the best of those who commit sin are those who are repentant” (Karim, 2019). This profound statement from Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) is a cornerstone in the understanding of repentance (tawba in Arabic) within the framework of Islamic theology. This means, man is a weak creature and it is likely that he commits sins. The bigger sin, however, is in not repenting the wrongdoings. Therefore, man need not be ashamed of sinning, but be prepared to sincerely repent. Perhaps, this is because repentance leads to spirituality which ultimately strengthens the relationship with God, hence guaranteeing safe providence. Interestingly, both Christianity and Islam emphasize the significance of repentance, hence, the spiritual life of the human soul. More importantly, they stress the correlation between sin and human misery, as discussed here.

Yet, it is worthy to say that reading the Bible marks an important point of change in the life of Robinson Crusoe. In other words, it leads to Crusoe’s repentance and upliftment of his soul, hence, bringing peace and tranquillity to both the mind and the soul. As Yousofi et al. (2014) notes, “Crusoe was full of hope after his conversion and it allowed him to continue with his adventures on the island, leading an active life”. He further concludes that Robinson Crusoe has found “peace and calmness in praying and communicating with God”. For Yousofi, Crusoe’s prayers made him able to tolerate loneliness for a long time and kept him from being depressed (191).

Interestingly, looking at Crusoe’s situation from an Islamic vantage point, one can easily admit the close affinity between the idea that the story of Robinson Crusoe tries to emphasize, which definitely takes off from Christianity, and the teachings glorified in Islam. Muslims too are highly advised to read Quran on a daily basis and to always pray to God, as such conduct uplifts the human soul and creates a strong interrelationship with God. According to Quran and Sunnah, such acts bring ease and comfort to the soul and the mind. As Allah Subhanahu wa ta’ala says in Quran:

(13:28) ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ وَتَطْمَئِنُّ قُلُوبُهُم بِذِكْرِ ٱللَّهِ ۗ أَلَا بِذِكْرِ ٱللَّهِ تَطْمَئِنُّ ٱلْقُلُوب

“Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah. Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah hearts are assured” (Quran Saheeh, 2004, 231). This means that reading the Quran on a daily basis brings comfort and peace to the mind and the soul. Indeed, that’s exactly what happens to Robinson Crusoe after he reads the Bible. He finds a cure both for his soul and body which is definitely the essence of the story (Defoe, 75), maintaining good relationship with God through reading His words and prayers.

To bring these thoughts together, Crusoe’s situation is not simply an adventure story in which thrilling things happen, but more importantly, a moral tale intended to create awareness about the right and wrong ways to live one’s life. This moral and religious tendency of the tale is referred to in the Preface, which states that Crusoe’s story is written to enlighten others in God’s wisdom where repenting one’s sins constitutes an important aspect of this wisdom. In the story, Crusoe appears to be in desperate need of repentance as he realizes that his major sin is his rebellious conduct toward his father, referred to here as his “original sin,” akin to Adam and Eve’s first disobedience of God. This biblical reference further suggests that the basic intention of the story of Robinson Crusoe: Beware of disobedience! However, if you do commit it, repentance is your saviour. Strikingly, almost all those religious/moral values that the story seem to emphasize, are integral principles in Islam, to the extent that, if we exclude the colonial aspects from the story, one would believe that this text is written by a Muslim writer.

5. Robinson Crusoe the survivor: Individualism/Self-reliance in Islam

Apart from being an exciting account of a man’s adventures on an uninhabited island, Robinson Crusoe, strongly stresses the significance of the individual as the creator of social life on earth, what is referred to as “modern individualism” by Duzer (2006) and Wilson (2019), respectively. Crusoe, for instance, not only manages to survive, but also develops a life for himself on that island which embodies the true meaning of individuality and self-dependence. Individualism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the individual’s moral worth, making the individual its focus. According to the dictionary of Merriam-Webster, individualism is a theory maintaining the political and economic independence of the individual and stressing individual initiative, action, and interests. Hofstede (1980) considered individualism to place rights above duties, a concern for oneself and immediate family, an emphasis on personal autonomy and self-fulfilment, and the basing of one’s identity on one’s personal accomplishments. This concept, in other words, values independence and self-reliance and advocates that the interests of the individual should take precedence over the community, state, or social group. This section attempts to highlight how this concept is presented in the story through the character of Robinson Crusoe who shows great individuality and self-reliance, and how this concept is viewed in Islam.

Significantly, individualism is more or less a core aspect of Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. This story is often understood to promote the concept of individualism (Häusermann, 1935; Hinojosa, 2012). Interestingly, in Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, individualism is shown gradually through the spiritual and moral progress of the main character Robinson Crusoe in different phases of his catalogued life. The first phase of the hero’s individuality starts with an unobtrusive rebellion. At the beginning of the text, we see Robinson Crusoe’s breaking away from his family and society. He seeks freedom away from parental ties or societal restrictions saying. “I should certainly run away from my master before my time was out, and go to sea; … ” (3). His rebellious spirit leads him to go against the will of his father to find his way. He longs to break free from the hierarchy that places him below his father and does not want to be submissive to the latter. Crusoe, therefore, expresses a high level of independence and self-reliance from the very beginning of the novel. Perhaps, that is why Abdu (2020) considered Robinson Crusoe a “novel of journey and discovery of the self” (203). In his essay, Reading the Self, Reading the Bible (or is it a Novel?): … , Hinojosa (2012), further claims that Robinson Crusoe’s conversion plot in Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe bears striking similarity to Augustine’s conversion plot in Confessions, especially in the ways Bible-reading is narrated as transforming the ontological nature of each “character’s self”. Hinojosa considers these texts as spiritual autobiographies narrating the journey of the individual self in relation to God (641).

However, most of the valuable merits of individuality are represented in Robinson Crusoe’s life on the island ranging from self-reliance to getting rid of obstacles and creating one’s own economy. Robinson Crusoe is always prepared by following the thoughts of the individual person who anticipates the difficulties and the constraints. Obviously, Robinson Crusoe’s prime strength is his hard-working spirit. He works hard for his survival, which, indeed, reflects the “spirit of the puritan age”, according to (Häusermann, 1935). In his description of Crusoe, Häusermann writes, “We have seen that this domination of instinct and emotion by will is ultimately a result of the ascetic doctrine of Puritanism. To the same religious source can be traced the spirit of drudgery, the effort of unceasing hard labour which we discover in Robinson Crusoe” (442). Remarkably, Crusoe’s individuality is largely depicted through his drive not only to survive but more importantly, to develop a “life” on the island. In a few years, he manages to establish his habitation and have different types of animals, including goats, cats, dogs, and so on. He also manages to grow different types of grains, such as, wheat, barley, and rice. However, it is worthy to say that such a life on the island is the outcome of great and constant labor by virtue of which Crusoe exploits all the resources and means at his disposal in order to establish his own kingdom on the island.

Indeed, the author seems to stress the significance of individuality and self-reliance as the driving forces of creativity and survival. Defoe portrays the ideal individualism in the new experience of Robinson Crusoe. The real-life challenge of the protagonist starts once he reaches the deserted island, where he establishes himself as an independent creature by surviving the hardships imposed by his surroundings. The story, in other words, teaches readers about the significance of self-dependence in order to overcome the obstacles of life. Defoe’s Preface states clearly that Crusoe’s story is meant to provide a model of moral and spiritual application for the reader, yet as with Crusoe’s Bible-reading, such application focuses on the present life of the individual (Hinojosa, 654). In this sense, Robinson Crusoe, the survivor, is stereotyped to embody the modern individual who fully relies on himself and works hard to succeed in life. Yet, that success would never be attained if the individual is far from God. Crusoe, for instance, reaches a state of hallucination and exhaustion. Reading the Bible, however, seems to restore his balance as this brings stability and comfort to his soul and mind. Hence, the story of Robinson Crusoe, the castaway, seems to stress the individual’s patience, confidence and hard-working spirit as his unique characteristics. The story also emphasizes the significance of independence, creativity, and responsibility as important aspects of the individual who can ingeniously use the resources around him to establish himself. As Stinde concludes, “God created each and every one of us to be the best we can be, and not ‘cogs’ in a giant wheel”. According to Stinde (2021), man can be a sinner, mankind fails, however, mankind must “strive to always be better” (5).

To a certain extent, Robinson Crusoe symbolizes teachings of Islam when it comes to embracing one’s individualism. As far as Islam is concerned, it is clearly stated in Quran that Allah has created man for the sole reason that he should establish life on earth and worship Allah. As Kia (2019) notes, God created “man as His representative on earth” (247). In other words, man is supposed to be the developer of life on earth. A man should be patient, creative, and hard-working. On the other hand, he shouldn’t be passive and hopeless but optimistic and active with a strong relationship with God. Such a relationship is essential for his providence and safe deliverance. As Allah Subhanahu wa ta’ala says in Quran:

(2:30) وَإِذْ قَالَ رَبُّكَ لِلْمَلَائِكَةِ إِنِّي جَاعِلٌ فِي الْأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةً

‘And [mention, O Muúammad], when your Lord said to the angels, “Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority … ” (Quran Saheeh, 2004, 5). This means Allah has created human beings mainly to worship him and to establish life on earth. However, without great labor, no one would succeed in life. In fact, the Quran, on many occasions encourages individuals to be independent and to work hard to earn their living. Allah Subhanahu wa ta’ala also says:

(67:15) هُوَ ٱلَّذِى جَعَلَ لَكُمُ ٱلْأَرْضَ ذَلُولًا فَٱمْشُواْ فِى مَنَاكِبِهَا وَكُلُواْ مِن رِّزْقِهِۦ ۖ وَإِلَيْهِ ٱلنُّشُورُ

“It is He who made the earth tame for you—so walk among its slopes and eat of His provision, and to Him is the resurrection” (Quran Saheeh, 2004, 580). Thus, man is instructed to work hard to establish and improve his life on earth.

Prophet Mohammad (Peace and Prayers be upon Him) also stressed the significance of self-reliance on many different occasions. It is reported that Prophet Mohammad had noticed the presence of an old man who settled permanently in the mosque. He was told that the man was in the mosque all day long, worshiping and dispensing the words of Allah to others. However, when the Prophet learned that a merchant, not known for his “piety, supported him for his living, the prophet remarked that of the two, the merchant was indeed more worthy” (Bassiouni, 2012, 1). In his essay, An Islamic perspective on Human Development, an unknown writer observes that God honoured humans by making them “viceregents” (Khalifa), or stewards, of creation, with the great trust of responsibility and service. He concludes that human beings have “close proximity to God as His special creations”. In fact, developing an ever-closer relationship with God is a basic principle of Islam. According to this writer, Muslim economists have used the term falah to define well-being from an Islamic perspective where the meaning of falah is widened to refer to a comprehensive state of spiritual, moral, cultural, political and socio-economic well-being in this world, and success in the hereafter. In practice, this means that at the “level of the individual, s/he (as an independent agent) is able to satisfy their basic needs and work for their spiritual, intellectual, and material advancement” (Islamic Relief, 2014).

Obviously, both Quran and Sunnah (Hadith) stress the significance of individuality and self-reliance in Islam. Perhaps, this is because the individual is the cornerstone of the establishment of a stable family, and thus, a good community. Indeed, the establishment of the Muslim individual is surely interrelated with the establishment of the family and the establishment of society, as all of them walk in intertwined and harmonious lines, helping each other, and it is an establishment that serves the political system and the state. In a wider sense, the teachings of Islam concerning social responsibilities are based on kindness and considerateness towards others. It defines the individual’s social relationships with the parents, husband/wife, relatives, and the community at large including neighbours, friends, orphans and widows, the needy, as well as animals and the environment (Moral Values in Islam, 2021, 6). As Allah says in Qur’an: And your Lord has decreed that you not worship except Him, and to parents, good treatment. Whether one or both of them reach old age [while] with you, say not to them [so much as], “uff,“and do not repel them but speak to them a noble word (Quran Saheeh, 2004, 265).

Indeed, Islam emphasizes the balance between individualism and collectivism. It celebrates the individuality of man and considers each individual personally accountable to God. It does not accept the view that man must lose his individuality to society or the state. The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon Him), says:

Every one of you is a guardian, and responsible for what is in his custody. The ruler is a guardian of his subjects and responsible for them; a husband is a guardian of his family and is responsible for it; a lady is a guardian of her husband’s house and is responsible for it, and a servant is a guardian of his master’s property and is responsible for it. (Saheeh Al-Bukhari)

According to Ismail, Islam always ensures the basic rights of the individual and does not allow anyone to interfere with them. It ensures the proper development of the character of man as the fundamental objective of its educational development of man (March 2016).

As in Western legal codes, “individual responsibility is predicated on the intent and motive of the actor in light of his ability to do good and to avoid evil or harm to others”. Stockton puts it simply, “Mercy and kindness toward men in the marketplace [and] Faithfulness to God in daily life” are major principles in Christianity (42). In Islam too, individual responsibility is a basic foundation to have a strong and reliable individual, hence, a cohesive society. Thus, in Islamic society, every individual is responsible for his own behaviour, this responsibility is stretched out to include those for whom he may be accountable and for things that he has control over. In other words, Islam believes that a person is responsible for his own practices within the boundaries of Islamic moral values. But the “relativity of human justice is not to be confused with the absoluteness of divine justice whose application every Muslim expects without fail on judgment day” (Bassiouni, 2012, 3).

Thus, when we try to compare the concept of individualism displayed in Robinson Crusoe to that of the Islamic conception of the term, one can say that Islam accepts and even encourages positive individualism if we agree that there are different types of individualism as suggested previously. Islam has always emphasized individual free will and self-reliance. The Holy Quran, for example, urges Muslims to take full responsibility for their actions. Despite Islam’s heavy emphasis on the importance of collectivism, individualism in Islam deals with the initial formation of committed, effective and responsible individuals. The Islamic perspective of individualism does not contract collectivism, but in the Islamic conception, these complements and enhance each other. Islam urges its members to work hard and be self-sufficient. Nonetheless, there is a complete disagreement from the Islamic side on the negative individualism which takes place in Robinson Crusoe such as, valuing individuality over a parent’s will. Islam instructs its followers to support one’s parents and obey all their reasonable requests. Islamic principles do not prioritize the sense of individuality over a Muslim’s family and society at large. Indeed, Islam seeks to create a balance between individualism and collectivism as two intertwined precepts enhancing and complementing each other.

In the following section, the study compares excerpts from Robinson Crusoe, finding parallels in the Quran that echo similar emotions, to demonstrate the versatility of the Quranic teachings at all times.

1. Those people cannot enjoy comfortably what God has given them because they see and covet what He has not given them. All of our discontents for what we want appear to me to spring from want of thankfulness for what we have (104).

And [remember] when your Lord proclaimed, ‘If you are grateful, I will surely increase you [in favor]; but if you deny, indeed, My punishment is severe. (14:2)

Merely being grateful for what we do have can ensure our well-being on the earth. By being grateful to Allah we can recognize our blessings instead of whining for what we did not get.

2. “Thus we never see the true state of our condition till it is illustrated to us by its contraries, nor know how to value what we enjoy, but by the want of it”. (111).

And if you were to count God’s favors, you would not be able to number them; most surely God is Forgiving, Merciful. (16:18)

If we see reasonably, man’s life is nothing but a succession of gifts from Allah, but many people are too short-sighted to see this. Instead, when they lose these gifts they realize what loss they have suffered.

3. I learned to look more upon the bright side of my condition, and less upon the dark side, and to consider what I enjoyed, rather than what I wanted: and this gave me sometimes such secret comforts, that I cannot express them; and which I take notice of here, to put those discontented people in mind of it, who cannot enjoy comfortably what God has given them, because they see and covet something that he has not given them. All our discontents about what we want appeared to me to spring from the want of thankfulness for what we have (104).

He who created Death and Life, that He may try which of you is best in deed: and He is the exalted in might, oft forgiving. (67:2)

Being sad for life’s challenges is not appreciable in man. Instead Allah smiles on those who take every challenge as an opportunity to instil greater faith in their hearts that they have been chosen by Allah for such a test.

4. ‘Redemption from sin is greater than redemption from affliction’ (189)

Indeed, Allah loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves. (2:222)

Repentance in the framework of Islamic theology is profound. To sin is considered human, but redemption from the same is meant to give many times more returns than redemption from physical pain as the former is an affair of the afterlife.

5. These reflections made me very sensible of the goodness of Providence to me, and very thankful for my present condition, with all its hardships and misfortunes; and this part also I cannot but recommend to the reflection of those who are apt, in their misery, to say, Is any affliction like mine? Let them consider how much worse the cases of some people are, and their case might have been, if Providence had thought fit.

From this moment I began to conclude in my mind that it was possible for me to be more happy in this forsaken, solitary condition that it was possible I should ever have been in any other particular state in the world; and with this thought I was going to give thanks to God for bringing me to this place. (105)

God tasks no soul beyond its capacity (2:286).

When man finds himself engulfed by problems that seem beyond bearing, there is no one around to support, everything seems to be falling apart, then know that Allah believes in you and your capacity to bear it, to overcome whatever hardships you are facing.

6. “Call upon me in the Day of Trouble, and I will deliver, and thou shalt glorify me…Wait on the Lord, and be of good Cheer, and he shall strengthen thy Heart; wait, I say, on the Lord:” It is impossible to express the comfort this gave me. In Answer, I thankfully laid down the Book, and was no more sad, at least, not on that Occasion’ (125). How mercifully can our Creator treat His creatures, even in those conditions in which they seemed to be overwhelmed in destruction! How can He sweeten the bitterest providences, and give us cause to praise Him for dungeons and prisons! What a table was here spread for me in a wilderness where I saw nothing at first but to perish for hunger!. (117)

So those who believe in Allah and hold fast to Him—He will admit them to mercy from Himself and bounty and guide them to Himself on a straight path (4:175).

The human soul can disintegrate given the terrifying place that the world is. Wherever we turn we see spectres of cruelty, injustice, and pain. However, the Quran reminds us that merely holding onto faith will deliver us.

7. What is this earth and sea of which I have seen so much? Whence is it produced? And what am I and all the other creatures, wild and tame, humane and brutal? Whence are we? Sure we are all made by some secret power, who formed the earth and sea, the air and sky; and who is that? Then it followed most naturally, It is God that has made it all. Well, but then it came on strangely, if God has made all these things, He guides and governs them all, and all things that concern them; for the power that could make all things must certainly have power to guide and direct them. If so, nothing can happen in the great circuit of His works, either without His knowledge or appointment. And if nothing happens without His knowledge, He knows that I am here, and am in this dreadful condition; and if nothing happens without His appointment, He has appointed all this to befall me. Nothing occurred to my thought to contradict any of these conclusions; and therefore it rested upon me with the greater force that it must need be, that God had appointed all this to befall me; that I was brought to this miserable circumstance by His direction, He having the sole power, not of me only, but of everything that happened in the world. Immediately it followed: Why has God done this to me? What have I done to be thus used? (73)

The Lord has created and balanced all things and has fixed their destinies and guided them. (87:2–3)

Everything that happens around us is predestined, there is nothing that Allah is ignorant of.

6. Conclusion

Reading Robinson Crusoe from an Islamic perspective brings forth the close affinity between Christianity and Islam. Almost all the fundamental Christian ethics emphasized in the story such as, spirituality, disobedience repentance and self-reliance constitute integral principles of the Islamic faith. Remarkably, Robinson Crusoe is used as an allegory to depict the spiritual journey of man on earth and the significance of that spirituality to him. This is mostly achieved through highlighting Crusoe’s sin and repentance, and his misery in between. In doing so, the story of Robinson Crusoe appears to be as an allegory of what happens when a man turns away from God, and the significance of coming back to him (repentance). This aspect, in particular, makes the story look like a “religious poem”, in Hasan’s (2009) words, not only in Christianity, but also, in Islam. Crusoe, therefore, as is evident in these readings from an Islamic perspective, is not a unique man, he is merely a representative of humanity in general, humanity as represented in religion and literature where the good wins in the end and all evil is vanquished by the hand of destiny:

I might well say now indeed, that the latter end of Job was better than the beginning. It is impossible to express here the flutterings of my very heart when I looked over these letters, and especially when I found all my wealth about me; for as the Brazil ships come all in fleets, the same ships which brought my letters brought my goods … (224)

Crusoe compares the journey of his strange life to that of the Biblical character, Job who is an epitome of faith and patience in the Christian world. The same values are upheld in the Holy Quran which demonstrates Allah’s immense faith in the abilities of His creation, the man. His journey is also one of the spiritual growth of a man who is hit by adversities that his disobedience brings upon him, lives a life of extreme uncertainty and danger, but is finally redeemed by his faith. All these emotions are also the hallmark of the Holy Quran. Regardless of his other unfavorable traits, Crusoe symbolizes how every man should behave on this earth.

In the realm of literature, religion, philosophy and life have a strange confluence. Further, literature and religion question how the set of beliefs and ideals operating as a set of institutions interact with each other while, at the same time, literature and religion enjoy a perfectly reciprocal relationship, competing, cooperating, and informing one another. Overall, it is interesting to see how literary marvels like Robinson Crusoe shed light on the same values as Islam teaches through the Holy Quran and the Prophet’s (PBUH) sayings.

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Khaled Abkar Alkodimi

Khaled Alkodimi is currently an associate professor of English Language & Literature at Imam University. Mr. Alkodimi has been a Sage Open Article Editor and reviewer since 2012, as well as, an editorial member and a reviewer for many international journals. His recent published papers include, the Concept of nation in al-Muqri’s Novels; Identity and Patriarchy: Nadia al-Kowkabani’s My Sana’a and Al-Muqri’s Anti-Religious Stance: A Call for Moderate Islamic Discourse. His Research Areas of interest include, Comparative/Arabic/English Literature, Postcolonial Literature, Feminist studies and English Language Teaching. Mr. Alkodimi has handled a few funded projects in his current university/position, mostly one project each one or two academic year(s). The current paper is a part of a research Project: Spirituality and Individualism in Robinson Crusoe (1719): An Islamic Perspective. Initially, it was intended to be funded by the university but due technical aspects related to timing and funding, I decided to do it on my own.