Celebratory expressions and linguistic diversity: investigating congratulation patterns among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu

Abstract

This study explores verbal and nonverbal congratulatory responses in the context of joyful Facebook status updates in Pakistani English and Urdu. Employing Terkourafi’s frame-based approach, quantitative and qualitative analyses were conducted on 16,165 comments and 16,230 emoji reactions from 140 Pakistani users. Elwood’s taxonomy and Allami and Pishghadam’s refined framework were used for verbal coding, while nonverbal data followed Facebook’s algorithm guidelines and Dresner and Herring’s framework. The findings reveal users’ adept expression of happiness and convivial emotions, showcasing significant language adaptation to cultural norms, especially with the prevalence of English. Pakistani users employ various congratulatory techniques, emphasizing the role of illocutionary force-indicating devices (IFID) in reinforcing positive self-image and commending success. Nonverbal elements, primarily emojis, play a crucial role in Pakistani conversations, signaling speech genres, defining social relationships and negotiating social purposes. The study suggests that future research should explore the longitudinal evolution of emoticons, investigating their potential conventionalization and transformation into established textual markers and providing insights into their linguistic and cultural significance in digital interactions.

Keywords:

• Congratulatory responses
• emoji reactions
• illocutionary force-Indicating devices (IFID)
• nonverbal elements
• verbal coding

Reviewing Editor:

• Jeroen van de Weijer
• College of International Studies, Shenzhen University, China

Subjects:

• Education – Social Sciences
• Language and Linguistics
• Literature

Introduction

The act of congratulating serves as a prominent means to convey joy and elation in response to favorable news or events. Recognized as a habitual speech act (Geoffrey, 1983), congratulations have attained substantial attention across various contexts due to the inherent cultural distinctions influencing their occurrence (Aziz et al., 2018; Elwood, 2004). Pragmatics introduces two lenses through which speech acts are observed and produced: sociopragmatic and pragmalinguistic perspectives (Haugh, 2015; Saleem et al., 2021a). Through these perspectives, speech acts offer insights into language variations within sociocultural and sociolinguistic milieus (Saleem et al., 2022). In light of this, this study seeks to reveal the linguistic and non-linguistic strategies employed by adept Pakistani Facebook users who comment in both English and Urdu while responding to joyful status updates. Facebook, a globally popular online social platform, holds a significant role in the daily lives of individuals, serving as a communication channel for connecting with friends, family, colleagues and more. Through comments, photo and video sharing, live event participation and personal updates, such as promotions, weddings and births, users express congratulations, offer emoji-based reactions and share content to convey satisfaction, admiration and pride (Aziz et al., 2020; Aziz et al., 2020; Benkaddour, 2021).

According to Castleton and Vittor (2006), social networking can strengthen the bond between viewers and their social contacts by serving as a facilitator of electronic communication. Through social networks, individuals can engage with one another, share information and foster interaction (Tsoumou 2020). People can communicate with each other immediately using social networks by writing to them or leaving comments on their posts. In certain situations, both sides utilize specific media to modify a consumer’s perception or conduct to achieve a desired result. Communication is the act of conveying somebody’s ideas or emotions using signals for others. Knowledge, interaction and collaboration are the types of information on media platforms that need to be understood. The capacity of the communicator to communicate ideas through language determines speech actions, which are components of speech events and pragmatic studies (Batool & Saleem, 2023; Bonnici & Ma, 2021; Zahara et al., 2020). Some crucial factors must be considered when communicating, like upholding civility between both the presenter and the listener. Each utterance should follow politeness conventions since doing so shows regard for other individuals. Linguistic politeness, which is another name for etiquette in speech, is a result of reverence (Aziz et al., 2020; Aziz et al., 2020; Khaouni et al., 2022).

Notably, studies have consistently underscored the prevalence of expressive speech acts on Facebook, with celebratory expressions taking precedence (Alghazo et al., 2021; Saleem et al., 2018; Saleem & Saleem, 2023). While specific speech acts like compliments and greetings have been extensively studied, the dominion of congratulatory discourse on Facebook remains relatively unexplored in the context of Pakistan. The intricacies of congratulatory expressions manifest not only in computer-mediated communication (CMC) like Facebook but also extend to face-to-face interactions, partly due to the absence of nonverbal cues and prosodic nuances (Ullah et al., 2023; Saleem & Khan, 2023).

Facebook, being a versatile communication platform, serves as a conduit for diverse interaction modes. Within this realm, the act of congratulation takes shape through linguistic, nonlinguistic and emoji-based means, allowing users to connect with joyous status updates. Thus, this study embarks on an exploration of both verbal and nonverbal responses to unravel the multifaceted strategies employed in responding to celebratory news on Facebook. The term ‘verbal responses’ herein pertains to the textual compositions of Facebook interactions. In contrast, nonverbal responses encompass actions like sending thumbs-up signs and emojis or sharing the news through platforms like WhatsApp or direct messages (Eslami & Yang, 2018; Saleem et al., 2021b; Saleem et al., 2021c). This pragmatic analytical approach aids in comprehending language dynamics within a specific context and cultural backdrop.

According to Vanderveken and Searle and Vanderveken (1985), congratulations are an expression of joy and goodwill toward the successes and fortunes of others. Bach and Harnish (1979) characterize it as a means of acknowledging achievements and pleasurable occurrences. In its essence, congratulation serves to extend positive messages by conveying enthusiasm and elation (Leech & Tatiana, 2014; Maqsood et al., 2019; Mushtaq et al., 2021; Ghani et al., 2022). Functionally, Searle (1976) categorizes it as an expressive act that encapsulates the inner emotional disposition concerning happy news, thus contributing to the portrayal of a positive interpersonal stance by the recipient. While the act of congratulating is often classified as a social intention by Geoffrey (1983), he designates it as a congenial illocutionary device that fosters opportunities for courtesy and politeness. This inherently respectful act requires no severity or mitigation, yet it may be embellished with intensifiers or gradable terms like ‘Warmest congratulations!’ for added emphasis (Saleem et al., 2020; Maqsood et al., 2018). Brown and Levinson (1987) further contribute to the understanding of congratulations by introducing the concept of ‘face’ into the realm of politeness theory. Kerbrat-Orecchioni (2022) refines the notion of face, delineating two categories: positive faces and negative faces. A happy face denotes a desire for others to acknowledge and value one’s preferences and desires.

Consequently, congratulation emerges as a proactive politeness strategy, amplifying the recipient’s positive face. Congratulation’s status as a constructive politeness tactic aligns with its role in enhancing social rapport. Positive politeness techniques function as strategies that symbolize intimacy and closeness, serving as social bridges. Geoffrey (1983), who highlight how speakers use positive politeness strategies to foster intimacy and signal their desire to connect with their interlocutors, provide evidence of this dynamic. Notably, the employment and interpretation of speech functions are not only culture-specific but also culture-sensitive, leading to variations in patterns of politeness techniques (Holmes, 2013).

This study focuses on investigating the verbal and nonverbal forms of congratulatory responses within the context of joyful news status updates on Facebook. The primary objective is to assess the prevalence of verbal responses, aiming to identify the most employed expressions and tactics both in the broader Pakistani culture and specifically in informal digital exchanges conducted in Pakistani English (Kachru, 1992) and Urdu. English is paramount in Pakistan, facilitating social advancement for some youth while posing difficulties for others. Though many possess a basic understanding, achieving fluency proves challenging in urban contexts. English is the primary language for decision-making across diverse domains within elite spheres (Rahman, 2020).

Beyond the realm of legislation, English now serves as the predominant language for rendering judgments, establishing legal precedents, framing regulations and crafting official policy papers. Its pervasive influence extends far beyond the realm of government and law, as English has firmly established itself as the primary language of commerce and industry across Pakistan (Rahman, 2020). English has seamlessly permeated virtually every aspect of society. English has evolved into an indispensable component of Pakistani culture, contributing to the country’s rich tapestry of languages and traditions. Its widespread usage continues to thrive, making English a widely spoken and understood language throughout Pakistan (Mahboob et al., 2008). This linguistic evolution has not, however, diminished the vitality and cultural significance of Urdu, which remains deeply entrenched in the hearts and minds of Pakistanis (Saleem et al., 2023).

In fact, the excessive use of English has paradoxically reinforced the importance of Urdu in Pakistani society. Notably, Urdu thrives on social media platforms, serving as a powerful tool for individuals to express their personal identities and cultural affiliations, as well as to convey joy or articulate their unique perspectives on various events and occasions (Fatima et al., 2017). This enduring affinity for Urdu reflects the pride and comfort that Pakistanis feel when using their native language, underlining its enduring significance in the country’s linguistic landscape (Saleem et al., 2021d; Ullah et al., 2022). Nonverbal responses, including smileys and emoji reactions, such as care, love, different smileys, like and wow, are investigated to gain insights into the array of interactions accompanying joyful news. The functional roles of emojis employed in congratulatory comments are categorized to shed light on their purposes and usage motivations. This study seeks the answers to the following questions:

1. What linguistic techniques and expressions do Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu typically use to express congratulations in response to happy news updates?

2. What nonverbal cues and emoticons do Pakistani Facebook users use to express congratulations in response to positive news updates in English and Urdu?

Theoretical framework

This study is anchored in Speech Acts (Austin, 1962; Clear & Leitner, 1992; Searle, 1976) and politeness (Brown & Levinson, 1987; Elwood, 2004; Grimmett & Crehan, 2014; Terkourafi, 2005) theories, providing profound insights into the intricate dynamics of human communication. Speech act theory explores the connections between utterances and behaviors, focusing on speakers’ intentions and their speech’s impact on listeners (Avazpour, 2020). It delves into illocutionary, locutionary and perlocutionary acts, emphasizing language’s dual function of conveying information and performing actions (Grundy, 2019; Ogunsiji, 2021; Wardhaugh, 2006). Brown and Levinson (1987) ‘Face-Saving Technique,’ which encapsulates politeness theory, navigates the complexities of responding appropriately within cultural contexts by concentrating on managing potential conflicts in interpersonal communication (Bach & Harnish, 1979; Khan et al., 2023; Kumar, 2017; Razavian et al., 2023; Sharndama & Ajayi, 2019). Face-threatening behaviors (FTAs) are evaluated based on positive or negative perceptions, with strategies categorized as bald on record, positive politeness and negative politeness (Aldhulaee, 2017; Chung & Chen, 2022; Egbert et al., 2020; Darong et al., 2022; Roberts, 1992; Saleem et al., 2022). This study explores the application of these theories in the Pakistani context, offering insights into linguistic diversity and celebratory expressions among Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu. Grounded in pragmatics, it highlights the role of context, cultural norms and social dynamics in shaping congratulatory discourse within digital spaces. The study comprehensively explains linguistic and nonverbal cue exchanges in online environments.

The review of congratulatory speech act research

Makri-Tsilipakou (2001) explored Greek congratulatory expressions, revealing their role in fostering conviviality. The study highlighted the prevalence of positive-polite strategies and their use in television programs as social catalysts. Migdadi et al’s. (2016) research focused on congratulations in English and Montenegrin, emphasizing the absence of strict formality distinctions. The study identified cultural variations, such as English speakers using familiar phrases, while Montenegrin speakers enjoyed a broader array of expressions, reflecting a more direct communication style. Unceta and Gomez (2016) examined congratulatory speech acts among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learner in Spain. They highlighted age and proficiency level influences, emphasizing the need for further research in intercultural language pragmatics (ILP) within foreign language learning contexts. Pishghadam and Morady’s (2011) study compared congratulatory expressions in English, Persian and Arabic, revealing significant cultural differences. English speakers leaned toward individualized expressions, while Persian speakers exhibited a collectivist culture, emphasizing relationships and religious expressions.

Saleem et al. (2022) explored congratulatory strategies among Pakistani ESL learners and British English speakers, revealing cross-cultural differences. The illocutionary force-indicating device (IFID) was commonly used, contributing to cross-cultural and intercultural communication in language learning. Eshreteh (2022) studied congratulatory speech acts on Palestinian Facebook, uncovering common tactics like ‘gift of best wishes’ and positive politeness techniques. The study emphasized the importance of considering sociocultural variations in foreign language teaching. Yus (2019) analyzed Jordanian Facebook users’ responses to a birthday update, identifying recurring themes and linguistic expressions. The study highlighted how individuals convey congratulations, urging further investigation into factors like age, socioeconomic status and gender.

The reviewed studies offer valuable insights into the significant dynamics of congratulatory speech acts, emphasizing the pivotal roles played by cultural variations, age, proficiency and social context in shaping language use. Notably, a notable gap exists in research within the Pakistani context, as no prior study has ventured into investigating the speech act of congratulations within the realm of fundamental online interactions. This gap in existing literature prompts a comprehensive exploration of congratulatory expressions in Pakistan’s unique sociocultural landscape, particularly in online communication.

Research methodology

Terkourafi’s (2005) frame-based approach emerges as a methodological cornerstone, offering a comprehensive and pragmatic avenue. This approach centers on the investigation of language usage within specific contextual frameworks that participants in social interactions dynamically shape. Given its bottom-up exploration of actual data, which makes it data-driven rather than theory-driven, Terkourafi’s (2005) method proves to be particularly robust. Terkourafi’s (2005) framework contends that the politeness of expressions is intricately tied to the frequency of their co-occurrence, a phenomenon inherently linked to the politeness impressions they convey. These impressions evolve through the consistent co-occurrence of specific linguistic constructs within distinct contextual scenarios. These co-occurrence patterns mirror language users’ prior experiences and reflect their adherence to community norms concerning appropriate expressions for given settings. By utilizing this method, both quantitative and qualitative data analyses are carried out, which give information about how often different types of language and contexts appear together. By embracing Terkourafi’s frame-based approach, this study endeavors to elucidate the multifaceted strategies and norms underpinning the expression of congratulations within the specific setting of Pakistani Facebook discourse.

The corpus of the study

The significance of corpus in linguistic studies cannot be overstated. It offers authentic language insights, uncovering nuances that might remain hidden in isolated examinations (Archer & Culpeper, 2003). Beyond authenticity, corpora influence reliability by steering clear of constructed examples. They have been pivotal in refining language tests like the TOEFL through datasets like the T2K-SWAL corpus, the characterizing language used by university students (Biber & Reppen, 2015). In pragmatics, corpora elucidate diverse pragmatic phenomena and aid language learners (Schauer & Adolphs, 2006). This research scrutinized 16,165 comments (8082 each in Urdu and English) and 16,230 emoji reactions from 140 Pakistani Facebook users. All data originated from the first author’s personal Facebook network. The study delved into congratulatory expressions related to 18 diverse events (see Table 1), excluding birthday celebrations due to their oral nature. Participants in their 30s, who shared both online and offline connections, were primarily engaged in the study. The researchers remained an observer in the Facebook group, ensuring an understanding of digital interactions and their contexts (Tsoumou, 2023). The data collection was meticulous, spanning four months and involving user photos, comments and emojis. Challenges arose in recording specific settings for each congratulatory response, leading to detailed event descriptions for analysis. Crucially, the data analysis was carried out only after obtaining formal permissions from individuals who commented in both English and Urdu. This punctilious approach helped address potential ethical concerns related to the participants’ contributions.

Table 1. Situations based on happy news events.

Sr. no.	Situations	Number of events
1	Publication of impactful research	03
2	Academic graduations	03
3	Career advancements/promotions	03
4	Success in competitive examinations	03
5	Competition wins	03
6	Wedding-related events-bridal shower/Barat/reception	03

The data source

The data for this study was harnessed from the vast reach and popularity of Facebook, a prominent online communication platform in Pakistan. Users frequently employ Facebook to announce and celebrate moments of happiness, such as graduation or noteworthy achievements, which are prominently featured on the platform, given priority and emphasized as significant content. It is important to note that, as PCM, 2022, there were 2.96 billion active Facebook users worldwide, with a slight increase of 0.17% from the preceding quarter and 1.75% compared to previous years (Akgül & Uymaz, 2022). Additionally, Facebook employs a News Feed ranking algorithm that prioritizes positive news items and commendatory remarks (Raza et al., 2020). The selection of Facebook as the primary data source is emphasized by its pivotal role in shaping the language used to describe societal and cultural phenomena within a specific linguistic context. Congratulations and expressions of joy are often conveyed nonverbally through the sharing of news and the use of emojis. Prior to commencing the study, ethical guidelines set forth by the Association of Internet Researchers (AoIR) were diligently followed, with permission sought from friends and acquaintances whose data would be used. In accordance with Facebook’s data policy, user-generated information and communications, encompassing textual content, are gathered for several explicit purposes, including product customization, statistical analysis, commercial activities, privacy protection, user interaction, research and innovation for the greater public good. This study adhered to stringent security protocols and relied on personal photos and comments made by friends, family members and acquaintances. Any references to identifiable characteristics or titles were replaced with neutral expressions, and participants were deemed capable of providing informed consent. The researchers invested significant effort in preserving the essence of the captured moments while presenting explanations in a general and non-identifying manner.

Data collection procedure

Data collection for this study occurred from September to December 2022, utilizing Facebook profiles of individuals connected to the first author, including friends, acquaintances and family members. Recognizing the labor-intensive nature of manual data collection, an IT expert and colleague from the Computer Science Department, holding a PhD, developed a specialized tool to automate the data retrieval process from Facebook. The first author’s Facebook profile served as the point of access for gathering a variety of data, including photos, comments and emojis, all of which were systematically stored on her desktop within Microsoft Excel files. The participant group consisted of individuals from diverse regions across Pakistan, spanning the age range of 18–68. This group encompassed a broad spectrum of professional backgrounds, comprising professors, associate professors, assistant professors, lecturers, senior lecturers, engineers, doctors and students. Data collected included details regarding participants’ titles, genders, geographic locations, hometowns and the timestamps indicating when each photo was uploaded. Notably, the study observed a considerable diversity among respondents who communicated in both English and Urdu, demonstrating a rich cultural and linguistic landscape. The size and composition of the study’s sample align with standards, with equal representation of volunteers and an extensive array of happy events and congratulatory strategies employed.

Data analysis procedure

Elwood’s (2004) taxonomy served as the initial framework for coding the verbal data, which Allami and Nekouzadeh (2011) then refined (see Table 2). Concurrently, the nonverbal data underwent coding procedures per Facebook’s algorithm (2023) guidelines. Following that, the framework put forth by Dresner and Herring (2010) guided the interpretation of the coded nonverbal data. The resulting coded data was then entered into the SPSS software for analysis, employing the descriptive statistics tool to derive percentages and frequencies. This analysis aimed to provide insights into the various congratulatory strategies employed by Facebook users in Pakistan commenting in English and Urdu, shedding light on their linguistic diversity.

Table 2. Classification of congratulations strategies (Elwood, 2004; Allami & Nekouzadeh, 2011).

Sr. no.	Verbal congratulations strategies	Expressions in English	Expressions in Urdu
01.	Illocutionary indicating force device (IFID)	Many congratulations! Huge congrats!	بہت بہت مبارک ہو۔مئبارکاں۔
02.	Expression of validation	I knew it; you, indeed, are exceptional.	میں جانتا تھا کہ آپ ایک شاندار کھلاڑی ہیں۔ تم بچپن سے ہی ہونہار بچے ہو۔
03.	Request for information/ask for the reason.	Are you pursuing a PhD? / Why was not I invited?	کیا آپ نے نیوز یونیورسٹی میں شمولیت اختیار کی ہے؟
04.	Statements indicating happiness	Please convey Phupo’s heartfelt congratulations on his achievements.	آپ کی کامیابی پر میں آپ کے لیے بہت خوش ہوں۔
05.	An expression of envy or longing	I am giving up, and I cannot be like you.	میرے پاس بھی آپ کی طرح صلاحیت ہے لیکن میرے پاس ایسی ٹیم نہیں ہے۔
06.	Statements of surprise and Encouragement	Waooo, continue to excel and radiate brilliance.	واہ بہت خوب! محنت کرتے رہیں۔
07.	Gratitude to God	Alhamdulillah! Nothing is achievable without His mercy.	الحمد للہ صرف اللہ ہی مدد کرنے والا ہے۔
08.	A call for celebration	Congratulations! You are invited to join us for dinner at Bandu Khan.	مبارک ہو! آئیے کامیابی کا جشن منائیں اور ایک ساتھ کھانا کھائیں۔
09.	Expressions of hope/devout sentiments	MashAllah! May the Almighty bless you with even greater success and protect you from the evil eye.	ماشاءاللہ! اللہ تعالیٰ آپ کو مزید کامیابیوں سے نوازے اور نظر بد سے محفوظ رکھے۔
10.	Lines from literature and quotes	Like father, like son.	ہو نیھار بروا کے چیکنے چیکنے پات۔

Inter-rater reliability assurance

To ensure consistent coding in our study, a content specialist initially coded 25% of the data from each participant group. Subsequently, a proficient Urdu and English speaker from Pakistan performed the coding of the data collected from Pakistani Facebook users commenting in both English and Urdu. Prior to the coding process, a comprehensive training session familiarized the rater and the research team with the coding scheme, including practical exercises. After coding, a thorough discussion session was held to analyze the findings. Importantly, the interrater reliability was notably high, and any initial inconsistencies were efficiently resolved through careful analysis and discussion of coding manual definitions.

Results

The results of verbal congratulations strategies among English- and Urdu-speaking Pakistanis are shown in Table 3. These results show clear patterns in the use of different language phrases. The illocutionary force-indicating device (IFID) emerged as the most frequently employed strategy, with 17% of Pakistani English users and 17% of Pakistani Urdu users utilizing this communicative device. Expression of validation was another common strategy, with 10% of Pakistani English users employing it compared to 7% of Pakistani Urdu users.

Table 3. Verbal congratulations strategies utilized by Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu.

Sr. no.	Verbal congratulations strategies	Pakistani English FB users		Pakistani Urdu FB users
		F	%	F	%
1	Illocutionary force-indicating device (IFID)	1335	17	1350	17
2	Expression of validation	830	10	555	07
3	Request for information/ask for the reason.	710	09	840	10
4	Statements indicating happiness	1100	14	1100	14
5	An expression of envy or longing	400	05	200	02
6	Statements of surprise and encouragement	1040	13	1050	13
7	Gratitude to God	810	10	1120	14
8	A call for celebration	600	07	750	09
9	Expressions of hope/devout sentiments	895	11	1000	12
10	Lines from literature and quotes	305	04	175	02
	Total	8025	100	8140	100

The request for information (RFI) or asking for the reason was utilized by 9% of Pakistani English users and 10% of Pakistani Urdu users, suggesting a consistent preference for seeking information in both linguistic groups. Of 14% of users used happy-sounding phrases in Pakistani English and Urdu, demonstrating a widespread expression of joy. Of 5% of Pakistani English speakers and 2% of Pakistani Urdu speakers chose an expression of envy or longing. It shows that these words are rare in either language group. Statements of surprise and encouragement were employed by 13% of Pakistani English users and 13% of Pakistani Urdu users, showcasing a consistent pattern in the use of encouraging language. Gratitude to God emerged as a notable strategy, with 10% of Pakistani English users expressing gratitude compared to 14% of Pakistani Urdu users. Of 7% of Pakistani English users and 9% of Pakistani Urdu users chose a call for celebration. Of 11% of Pakistani English users and 12% of Pakistani Urdu users used Expressions of hope/devout sentiments, indicating a shared propensity to use expressions related to religion. Lines from literature and quotes had a lower utilization rate, with 4% of Pakistani English users opting for this strategy compared to 2% of Pakistani Urdu users.

Moreover, the results of nonverbal congratulation strategies among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu corevealed distinctive patterns in using various emoticons. The most frequently employed process was the ‘👍’ thumbs-up, with 17% of Pakistani English users and 18% of Pakistani Urdu users opting for this form of expression. ‘❤’ heart was another used strategy, with 14% of Pakistani English users employing it compared to 7% of Pakistani Urdu users. Of 12% of Pakistani English users and 11% of Pakistani Urdu users used the heart face ‘😍’, showing a relatively consistent preference across both linguistic groups. Similarly, 5% of Pakistani Urdu users and 10% of Pakistani English users used the ‘revolving heart’ ‘💕 (Table 4).

Table 4. Nonverbal congratulations strategies utilized by Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu.

Sr. No.	Nonverbal congratulations strategies	Pakistani English FB users		Pakistani Urdu FB users
		F	%	F	%
1	👍	1335	17	1410	18
2	❤	1120	14	555	07
3	😍	1050	12	840	11
4	💕	960	10	400	05
5	👏	840	11	840	11
6	😮	600	08	1050	12
7	🎉	555	07	1120	14
8	🎊	980	12	1050	12
9	🥳🥳	400	05	600	08
10	😜	105	01	175	02
11	🤭	115	01	155	01
	Total	8060	100	8170	100

Divergence in usage was observed in strategies, such as surprise face ‘😮,’ where 8% of Pakistani English users utilized it compared to 12% of Pakistani Urdu users. However, 11% of Pakistani English and Urdu users chose the clapping hand ‘👏’. Distinctive trends emerged in the usage of celebratory emoticons, part popper ‘🎉’ and party ball ‘🎊,’ with 7% and 12% of Pakistani English users utilizing them, respectively, and 14% of Pakistani Urdu users employing ‘🎉’ and 12% opting for ‘🎊.’ The partying face ‘🥳,’ winking eye face ‘😜,’ and face with hand over mouth ‘🤭’ demonstrated varying levels of utilization, with ‘🥳’ being employed by 5% of Pakistani English users and 8% of Pakistani Urdu users. Winking eye face ‘😜’ and face with hand over mouth ‘🤭’ had lower utilization rates, each chosen by 1% of Pakistani English users and 2% and 1% of Pakistani Urdu users, respectively.

Discussions

The in-depth analysis of responses from 120 out of 140 Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English revealed a significant trend: the adept use of IFID to convey enthusiasm for various developments. These IFID expressions like ‘congratulations’ were often intensified by duplicating letters or sporadic capitalization (e.g. ‘congratulatioN’). Participants used IFID with gradable markers or adjectives to amplify happiness, especially for events like career advancements, promotions, competition wins and academic graduations. These expressions often overlapped with other congratulatory strategies, reinforcing the celebratory sentiments conveyed. The study corroborates earlier research on IFID’s prevalence and versatility in digital discourse among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English (Al-Shboul & Abu-Snoubar, 2022; Kamran & Mansoor, 2017; Mahzari, 2017; Makri-Tsilipakou, 2001; Octaviani & Haryanto, 2023; Saleem et al., 2023), highlighting their nuanced role in communicating intense happiness and approval during moments of achievement.

The Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu demonstrated a predominant usage of the IFID in diverse forms. Specifically, a notable pattern emerged where participants creatively used ‘Mubarak (congratulations)’ by adding the Persian plural marker ‘an’ to the root word ‘Mubarak’ or ‘Mobarak,’ borrowed from Arabic (Saleem et al., 2022). This IFID form was notably employed for conveying wishes, particularly in wedding and career advancement contexts. Additionally, commenters frequently utilized IFID in phrases like ‘Mubarak ho (congratulations)’ and ‘bohat bohat Mubarak ho (many congratulations),’ seen not just as congratulatory messages but also as prayerful expressions wishing success (Azam & Saleem, 2018; Khan et al., 2021). The examination of Urdu data revealed significant differences between ‘Mubarakan,’ indicating a straightforward ‘congratulations,’ and ‘dilli-mubarakbad (heartiest congratulations),’ signifying more than mere felicitations. The latter implies acknowledging the achievement and entails a social expectation for the speaker to ‘celebrate’ the accomplishment by sending sweets or extending an invitation to a feast. Pakistani Facebook data illustrated diverse celebration forms for events like weddings or successes occurring in various settings. The study aligns with Can’s (2011) research, indicating similar variations in congratulatory strategies in English and Turkish data.

The RFI strategy was relatively rare, occurring only 25 times among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English. This approach, often combined with the IFID, aimed to seek specific details, notably in responses to wedding-related updates or competition wins. Participants frequently used IFID to pose inquiries for further event details, enhancing its impact by blending it with other strategies. This blending illustrates the dynamic and multifaceted nature of language use, particularly within Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English. These findings align with prior research on congratulatory strategies by Banikalef (2021), Congram (2019) and Octaviani and Haryanto (2023), reinforcing the evolving and context-specific nature of language in digital communication. (Banikalef, 2021; Congram, 2019; Octaviani & Haryanto, 2023).

The validation expression emerged prominently as the third most frequently used linguistic pattern among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English, serving as a standard means to convey both joy and courtesy within digital interactions. Instances extracted from our corpus data include phrases, such as ‘I have eagerly anticipated this day since I got to know you,’ which exemplify users’ tendencies to offer encouragement and support in their interactions. These findings align closely with previous studies conducted by Saleem et al. (2023), Mahzari (2017) and Can (2011), reinforcing the significance and prevalence of validation expressions in the context of online communications among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English. The consistent use of these expressions signifies not only the conveyance of positive emotions but also reflects the supportive and encouraging nature of interactions within this online community.

The prevalence and cultural significance of validation expressions among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu were notable, fostering positivity and harmony within the community (94). These expressions were prominently used in sharing updates on impactful publications, promotions and academic graduations. Analysis revealed frequent usage of phrases like ‘tum to pedaishi genius ho (you are a born genius),′ ‘mujy yaqeen tha tum ye kr dekhao gy (I was confident that you could accomplish it),′ and ‘tum hamesha sy aik kabil or shandar salhiaton k malik insaan ho or ye kamyabi to aik ibtida ha (you have always been a person of remarkable qualities, and this achievement marks the beginning of a series of future successes).′ These findings add depth to the study of congratulatory strategies, showcasing the cultural diversity and positive politeness norms among Pakistani Urdu-speaking Facebook users. They expand on previous research and align with scholars such as Al-Shboul et al. (2022), Banikalef (2021) and Jahangard (2016) reaffirming the significance of these findings in intercultural communication.

The expression of happiness prominently emerged among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English, showcasing adept communication skills with 85 instances observed in diverse contexts, including weddings and competitive victories. Expressions ranged from praise to personal terms of joy, such as ‘We are proud of you,’ ‘Man, you nailed it,’ and ‘Great achievement.’ These comments vividly portrayed warmth and support for the speaker’s accomplishments, reflecting genuine happiness and well-wishes. It aligns with prior studies (Congram, 2019; Eshreteh, 2022; Mahmood et al., 2018; Octaviani & Haryanto, 2023), highlighting the nuanced communication styles of Pakistani Facebook users and emphasizing their adaptability across social contexts, particularly in sharing joyful news on social media platforms. These insights enrich our understanding of culturally informed online social interactions.

The use of happiness expressions in Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu reflects a significant facet of their communication, allowing them to openly convey their emotions, notably during pivotal life events like graduations and promotions. In our analysis of 85 instances, phrases like ‘meri Khushi or musarat ki to intiha nahi jub sy mane ap ki kamyabi ki khabr sunni (I am overjoyed to hear the news of your success)’ and ‘Wah, wah, mere pass ap ki taareef k lye ilfaaz nahi han (Wow, I am left speechless to hear about the great victory)’ were prevalent, illustrating the depth of warmth and enthusiasm conveyed. Expressions like ‘Zabardast! Dilli mubarakbad (fabulous! Hearty congratulations)’ further underscore this jubilation. These findings resonate with Can (2011), who explored congratulatory strategies across languages, including Turkish and English. Li et al. (2015) and Larson (2018) have also delved into similar linguistic and cultural expressions of happiness, complementing our observations.

The scarcity of envy and longing expressions among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English is evident in our study, with a mere seven instances identified. This scarcity suggests a prevailing inclination toward emphasizing positivity over negative face-image-related sentiments. Notably, this trend is observable in updates related to significant publications and academic achievements. For instance, one user’s comment conveyed envy by stating, ‘you have become The Don of the research world,’ accompanied by a winking eye and crying emoji, illustrating the rarity of such expressions. Conversely, another user expressed longing by saying, ‘You are fortunate to have such a fortuitous opportunity. Congratulations, and I also want to get admission.’ These findings align with prior studies by David (2018), Syafitri (2020) and Saleem et al. (2023), collectively supporting the prevalent culture among digital media users to promote positivity and minimize expressions of envy and longing in online interactions.

In the Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu, expressions of envy or longing for experiences are infrequent. Among various data collected, such expressions primarily surface in relation to promotions or competition wins, with only five instances observed. This scarcity highlights the supportive and positive nature of these users, displaying minimal inclination toward negative comments. Instead, their communication style tends toward humor over envy, evident in phrases like ‘Mobarak ho bhae! Tumhare to mojaen han’ (Congratulations! You are in heaven) and ‘Mobarak ho, humari ap jesi kismat kahan’ (Congratulations! I am not lucky enough to be like you). These examples underscore the amiable and candid demeanor of Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu, even when acknowledging others’ achievements. It aligns with prior studies by Saleem et al. (2022, 2023) that also noted a decrease in expressions of envy among ESL and EFL learners in Pakistan. This study contributes by offering specific examples from Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu, enriching our understanding of this linguistic phenomenon within the Pakistani online community.

In the Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English, expressions of surprise were observed infrequently but prominently in 35 instances, often linked to joyful updates. These expressions, particularly evident during significant life events like weddings and career advancements, showcased the community’s supportive and encouraging approach through positive politeness. Examples of this included phrases like ‘OMG OMG OMG that’s hugeeeeeeee congrats so happy for you!’ where ‘OMG’ intensified surprise, while elongated words like ‘hugeeeeeeee’ emphasized the enormity of the achievement. Interestingly, women used surprise expressions combined with congratulatory techniques more frequently than men, contrasting findings from other cultural contexts. However, among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu, surprise expressions for congratulations were rarer, occurring only 14 times, mainly in the context of weddings and victories. Expressions like ‘Zabardust! Bohat bohat Mubarak ho (fantastic! Many congratulations)’ and ‘wah, Mubarak ho (Wao, congratulations)’ conveyed admiration and congratulations. These findings resonate with cross-cultural studies affirming surprise expressions as universal in celebratory communication (Banikalef, 2021; Octaviani & Haryanto, 2023).

After examining the dataset, we identified 28 instances of the phrase ‘Alhamdulillah,’ commonly used across various contexts, such as weddings, competition victories and school graduations. Users frequently combined this expression with congratulatory remarks, as seen in comments like ‘Alhamdulillah! Many congratulations!’ This merging of religious gratitude and heartfelt congratulations illustrates the deep-seated cultural and religious norms within the Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English. Additionally, the recurring use of ‘Masha Allah Mash Allah! Fabulous; you deserve it,’ particularly in response to personal achievements, indicates a communal expression of wonder and gratitude. This phrase also serves a protective function, signifying the community’s desire to shield the recipient from negativity. Scholars like Mahzari (2017) and Octaviani and Haryanto (2023), Saleem et al. (2022) have explored similar linguistic strategies among different cultural and digital contexts, emphasizing their prevalence and cultural significance.

The gratitude expression to God among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu, observed around 20 times in our data, signifies well wishes and celebrates diverse life events like weddings, promotions and academic graduations. Examples like ‘Bohat bohat mubarak ho shukar Allah (Many congrats and thanks to Allah),’ and ‘Alhamdolillah tum fatahyab hue, mubarak ho (thank God you got the victory, congratulations)’ vividly demonstrate how users blend linguistic expressions with religious sentiments. This ingrained cultural expression encapsulates profound joy, gratitude and goodwill, resonating across celebratory contexts like festive occasions, personal achievements and communal milestones. Marrow’s research (2006) supports the direct use of Allah’s word in Arabic cultures, highlighting the cross-cultural significance of this phenomenon. Its use echoes genuine felicitation, reflecting communal harmony and religious devotion. This intricate interplay of the Urdu language and Islamic gratitude rituals underscores the profound influence of cultural norms on language practices. Moreover, its versatile application across diverse life events mirrors Pakistani social culture’s inclusivity, fostering communal celebration. Our findings align with earlier studies by and Alghazo et al. (2021), Can (2011) and Saleem et al. (2023), emphasizing the significance of this linguistic phenomenon within broader language and cultural contexts.

The frequency of celebratory statements among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English was notably low, totaling seven instances in the data. These expressions primarily centered around celebrating competitive victories and career advancements. For instance, one user bypassed the conventional IFID expression and boldly stated, ‘It’s a time to celebrate,’ signaling a direct call to acknowledge a colleague’s recent achievement. Another user suggested ‘a call for celebrations,’ while a third warmly invited, ‘Let us have a party and dine out,’ demonstrating a communal approach to celebrating a colleague’s promotion. These instances reflect the communal nature of Pakistani culture, emphasizing collective responses and affirming the importance of creating a lively atmosphere to honor accomplishments. Previous studies (Ammari et al., 2023; Can, 2011; Saleem et al., 2023) align with these findings, highlighting similarities in how different cultures extend congratulations.

The frequency of celebratory expressions among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu was notably low, comprising only three instances in the dataset. These instances, like ‘Daawat to bnti ha bhae (party is due),’ illustrate the cultural inclination to signify the need for festive gatherings in response to joyful occasions. The use of ‘Daawat’ emphasizes social affinity, while ‘Khushi ka moqa ha kuch meetha ho jae (its joyous moment; let us have some sweets)’ underscores the cultural connection between celebration and consuming sweets. These instances extend beyond verbal expressions to include various celebratory practices, such as gatherings, dining out and social activities related to events like weddings or promotions. These findings align with Can’s (2011) research, which highlighted similar differences in congratulatory expressions across cultural settings, emphasizing the subtle nuances in celebratory expressions.

Expressions with devout sentiments, observed 115 times among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English, emerged prominently in conveying joy, compliments and divine blessings across various celebratory events. For instance, the phrase ‘Masha Allah, congratulations! May Almighty bless you more’ showcases the fusion of spiritual beliefs and celebratory gestures, reflecting communal acknowledgment and invoking divine protection upon an individual’s achievements. Similarly, phrases like ‘Congratulations! May Allah bless you to conquer more heights and discover new skies’ intertwine heartfelt congratulations with sincere wishes for continued prosperity, highlighting communal support. Interestingly, these findings contrast with prior research by Makri-Tsilipakou (2001) among Greeks, showcasing a greater prevalence of divine expressions among both English and Urdu-speaking Pakistani Facebook users. These observations align with recent studies by Al-Shboul (2016) and Saleem et al. (2022, 2023).

The analysis of 98 instances of digital interactions among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu reveals the prevalent use of devout sentiments, particularly in contexts related to weddings and promotions. These examples demonstrate the strategy’s employment, emphasizing individuals’ intentions to convey positivity, courtesy and celebration. For instance, one commenter wrote, ‘Mobarak ho Janab, Allah Talaa dheron khushian Naseeb farmae. Ameen (Congratulations, Sir! May Allah Almighty bestow numerous blessings upon you. Amen),’ showcasing the community’s frequent use of divine expressions. The phrase ‘Mobarak ho Janab’ signifies respect and formality, often used in celebratory contexts to honor someone. Moreover, ‘Allah Talaa dheron khushian Naseeb farmae’ conveys heartfelt wishes for the recipient’s prosperity, invoking divine blessings. Lastly, ‘Ameen’ reflects a communal endorsement of the prayer, underlining the cultural significance of invoking blessings from a higher power in positive social interactions. These linguistic elements collectively convey well-wishes and highlight the cultural significance of religious expressions in digital communication.

The infrequent yet notable use of lines from literature in interactions among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English was observed in 5 instances. These instances demonstrated the skilled and graceful use of literary expressions, particularly in extending congratulations and expressing admiration for achievements, notably in competitive events and academics. For instance, in response to news about a competition victory, a user’s comment, ‘Like father, like son, great to hear,’ hinted at a generational legacy of achievement, conveying admiration and pride. Another commenter’s phrase, ‘No wonder as he is champ’s champ,’ exemplified linguistic practices, indicating strong admiration and acknowledgment for outstanding performance. These instances showcase the community’s adeptness in using familiar idiomatic expressions and sports-related language to convey praise and admiration for exceptional accomplishments (Mahzari, 2017).

The analysis of the Urdu dataset derived from proficient Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu revealed four instances where lines from literature and quotes were used to convey congratulations, particularly in response to academic and professional achievements. One remarkable example showcased a learned commenter citing a verse from Urdu literature: ‘Masha Allah, honihar barwa ke chikny chikny paat (Coming events cast their shadows beforehand),’ signifying appreciation and anticipatory joy. This carefully chosen quote embodies celebratory sentiments, displaying linguistic prowess and cultural depth. These findings expand upon previous research on employing literary verses or quotes for expressing congratulations in diverse cultural contexts. Notably, studies by Banikalef (2021), Emery (2000) and Ekechi (2021), have explored similar strategies across various cultural frameworks.

The second question of this study asked:

1. What nonverbal cues and emoticons do Pakistani Facebook users use to express congratulations in response to positive news updates in English and Urdu?

The study on Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu highlighted a significant trend in emoji usage. Notably, the thumbs-up emoji emerged as the most prevalent among the provided emojis. Often used independently, it efficiently communicates approval, happiness or agreement with posts or comments. The analysis, supported by Sampietro (2019) and Banikalef (2021), indicated its versatile usage alongside the text, enhancing its emotional context. In the dataset, the thumbs-up emoji appeared 1365 times in English data and 1550 times in Urdu data. Its frequent combination with text reinforced celebratory expressions, happiness and support. Additionally, its widespread use seemed to cultivate a polite atmosphere, potentially mitigating face-threating acts (FTAs) (Ge & Herring, 2018; Gibson et al., 2018; Holtgraves, 2023).

The analysis of Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English conversations highlighted a consistent use of the thumbs-up emoji to cultivate positivity and politeness, particularly in acknowledging achievements. Specific instances within the data showcased this trend. For example, a user responded to news of someone’s educational success with a comment: ‘Wow, congratulations 👍.’ The inclusion of ‘wow’ added an element of awe, emphasizing the significance of the achievement. By pairing this exclamation with the widely understood thumbs-up emoji, the commenter conveyed genuine approval and excitement. This combination not only congratulated but also uplifted and amplified the sender’s positive sentiments, enhancing the overall impact of the message (Aziz et al., 2018).

The analysis of Urdu data reveals a significant trend in using the thumbs-up emoji alongside personalized expressions and complimentary language, enhancing the recipients’ feelings of accomplishment. For instance, a notable entry in the dataset features the phrase ‘Shabash Beta! Bohat bohat Mubarak ho 👍,’ meaning (Well done, my son! Many congratulations). This phrase, deeply rooted in cultural and familial support, coupled with the thumbs-up emoji, not only acknowledges achievement but also nurtures pride and encouragement, fostering a supportive digital environment (Andrade et al., 2020; Beißwenger & Pappert, 2019).

The research revealed widespread use of love-themed emojis like ❤, 😍 and 💕 by Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu. Emojis serve as powerful tools for expressing affectionate and joyful emotions (Beißwenger & Pappert, 2019; Hamdan, 2022; Holtgraves, 2023). Notably, these emojis were frequently used in various celebratory contexts, from sharing high-impact publications to celebrating marriages, victories and academic achievements. Their versatile nature extends beyond romantic expressions, encompassing care, admiration and heartfelt congratulations within the digital sphere.

In our study, when users commented in English, love-themed emojis were used a total of 1456 times. This high frequency underscores their pivotal role in digital communication, expressing emotions like affection and appreciation. The data highlighted various instances of their use. For instance, an example from the dataset showcases a love-themed emoji within a supportive message: ‘Cheetah, tell him Phopo loves him for this achievement ❤.’ The inclusion of ‘Phopo,’ a term often used for aunts in Pakistani culture, amplifies the message’s intimacy. It conveys familial support, emphasizing the closeness and emotional backing provided to celebrate the recipient’s success. Furthermore, the use of the growing pink heart emoji ❤ adds depth, symbolizing affection and pride (Dainas & Herring, 2021; Maqsood et al., 2018).

The data analysis of Urdu Pakistani Facebook users revealed a consistent use of love-themed emojis combined with text to convey deep admiration and congratulations. These emojis serve as powerful tools for expressing emotions within the digital realm (Spencer-Oatey, 2005). For instance, within our dataset, a striking example illustrates this trend: ‘Kia baat ha, Shandaar performance 💕 😍 (Wow, what a fantastic performance!).’ This expression conveys awe and admiration for an outstanding achievement. The phrase ‘Kia baat ha’ signifies surprise and appreciation, while the use of the revolving hearts emoji 💕 and the heart eyes face 😍 intensifies the sender’s admiration. These combined elements convey a message of amazement, delight and heartfelt applause for the exceptional performance (Spencer-Oatey, 2005).

The study reveals that proficient Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu commonly employ the clapping hands👏 and surprised face 😮 emojis to convey admiration and amazement. While not overwhelmingly prevalent, these emojis frequently appeared, totaling 1056 instances in the datasets examined. Notably, these emojis were observed in various contexts, such as celebratory occasions like weddings and discussions about significant publications. For instance, expressions like ‘Congratulations 👏 👏 👏 👏!’ were often used, notably in the users’ commented in English subset, to convey congratulations enthusiastically. Specifically, the repeated use of the clapping hands emoji 👏 intensifies the expression of congratulations, symbolizing heightened exuberance and applause for significant achievements – a digital representation of appreciation in these interactions (Beißwenger & Pappert, 2019; Eslami & Yang, 2018).

Among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu, the use of the surprise face 😮 and clapping hands 👏 emojis revealed intriguing communication patterns. The 😮 emoji, known as the ‘open mouth’ or ‘surprised face,’ signifies astonishment or awe. Expressions like ‘😮 Mubarkaan bhae Mubarkaan jeety rahy’ combine ‘Mubarkaan’ for ‘congratulations,’ ‘bhae’ for ‘brother,’ and ‘jeety rahy’ for ‘keep winning.’ This amalgamation expresses heartfelt congratulations, possibly to a friend, wishing ongoing success. Similarly, the 👏 emoji was employed in ‘aagy barhty raho mere Shaheen👏 (Keep moving forward, my falcon),’ urging perseverance and progress, where ‘Shaheen’ metaphorically conveys strength or pride. These instances showcase how these emojis enrich interactions, conveying sincere congratulations and steadfast support among Among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in Urdu, the use of the surprise face 😮 and clapping hands 👏 emojis revealed intriguing communication patterns. (Khan et al., 2021 pp. 810–812).

The study found that proficient Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu often use celebratory emojis like🥳, 🎉 and 🎊 to add positivity and festivity to their messages. These symbols, notably used 987 times in the data, serve as embellishments, amplifying the messages’ impact (Herring & Ge-Stadnyk, 2018; Prada et al., 2018; Sugiyama, 2018). By skillfully incorporating these emojis, users create a vibrant and joyful online atmosphere, enhancing emotional expression in their interactions (Al Rashdi, 2018).

Emojis serve beyond decorative elements; they play a pivotal role in conveying emotions and setting the text’s tone. For instance, among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu, a message like ‘Well done, congratulations 🎉 🥳’ combines direct praise with visual cues. The words express praise, while 🎉 illustrates celebration, intensifying the message’s positivity. Adding the 🥳 emoji emoji further intensifies the joy and excitement, turning the congratulatory message into an invitation for shared festivity (Li et al., 2015).

In the Urdu dataset, celebratory emojis primarily feature messages linked to weddings and professional accomplishments (Sampietro, 2016). For instance, in a message like ‘Mubarak ho, mithai kahan ha dulhe mian 🎊!’ (Congratulations! Where are the sweets, groom?), ‘Mubarak ho’ translates to congratulations, while ‘Mithai kahan ha dulhe mian’ playfully refers to the customary sweets at weddings. The 🎊 emoji at the end symbolizes festivity, adding a joyful tone to the message and amplifying the celebratory nature (Sampietro, 2016).

Conclusion

This study delved into the verbal and nonverbal congratulatory strategies employed by Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu, revealing their frequent use of congratulatory expressions in joyful moments. The findings underline how these users openly express happiness and convivial emotions on Facebook, reflecting a nuanced adaptation of language usage to diverse cultural norms and values, particularly with the growing prevalence of English on social media platforms. Notably, Pakistani users adeptly utilize various congratulatory techniques to convey emotions effectively, including expressions of happiness and gratitude to God. The study highlighted the prevalence of IFIDs, emphasizing their role in reinforcing positive self-image and commending success. Furthermore, it became evident that nonverbal techniques, particularly emojis, play a crucial role in Pakistani English and Urdu conversations. Emojis serve as valuable cues to signal speech genres, define social relationships and negotiate the social purposes of a conversation. They exhibit variability influenced by interlocutors, topics, technical features and specific circumstances of the exchange. The nuanced analysis of this study underscores that emojis serve as tools for socially appropriate interactions within cultural contexts rather than a universal language. It identified three distinct functions of emojis: expressing emotion, conveying non-emotional meanings and serving as indicators of illocutionary force, showcasing a need for further investigation into their evolving nature. Therefore, future research endeavors should consider longitudinal studies into emoticon use and verbal congratulation strategies, exploring their potential conventionalization and transformation into established textual markers. Investigating the evolving nature of emoticons in communication will contribute valuable insights into their linguistic and cultural significance in digital interactions.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Aisha Saleem

Ms. Aisha Saleem, an aspiring scholar, is pursuing her Ph.D. in English at the University of Gujrat, Pakistan. With a keen research focus, she investigates the realms of corpus linguistics, bilingualism, pragmatics and second language acquisition (SLA). A dedicated student, Ms. Saleem contributes to the academic landscape through her commitment to advancing knowledge in these fields. Her pursuit of a doctoral degree reflects a passion for understanding language intricacies and the dynamic interplay of linguistic elements.

Musarat Yasmin

Dr. Musarat Yasmin is serving as Associate Professor, in the Department of English at University of Gujrat, Pakistan. She has authored more than 30 peer-reviewed international journal articles with an h-index of 10 and an accumulative impact factor of 23.58. Her research interests include ESP, TESOL, Education and Gender Studies. She serves as Co-editor for Hayatian Journal of Linguistics and Literature and as a reviewer for Taylor and Francis, and De Gruyter journals.