Investigating the link between land service delivery and residential development in Ghana: a case study of Ampabame within Atwima Kwanwoma District in Kumasi

Abstract

The accessibility of appropriate land for private development has become of significant concern to, essentially, residential property developers. With Ampabame in view, the aim of this study is to examine the prevalent challenges pertaining to the acquisition of land; the high-land-value effect of land service delivery on residential development; and the role of relevant agencies in land service delivery, as well as its impact on residential development. The sample for this study includes some land owners at Ampabame, the Lands Commission, and the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority. Among the findings, lack of cooperation (and coordination), among, and/or between, all the relevant stakeholders in the community (fundamentally, residential property developers and utilities and services providers), has the most adverse impact on the development of residences. It is, therefore, recommended that there should be coordination among relevant stakeholders and institutions; such as the Lands Commission, the chiefs and elders, family heads, and the district assembly. Moreover, this study has shown that land delivery for residential development is expensive, creating a hostile atmosphere for such developments. So, there must be the existence of a more dedicated Lands Commission to regulate the cost of land. Also, given that residential property developers have been found to, often, complain about inaccessible, and/or poor, land service delivery (propelled) by state institutions, which affects residential development unfavourably, this research proposes strict enforcement, and enactment, of the reforms in the Lands Act 2020; to ensure the cohesive development of residences in Ghana.

Keywords:

• Lands Act
• land delivery
• residential development
• residential properties
• stool lands

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Samuel Adu-Gyamfi, History and Political Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana

SUBJECTS:

• Social Sciences
• Development Studies
• Cities and The Developing World
• Development Policy
• Rural Sociology
• Urban Sociology
• Economics and Development
• Population and Development
• Sustainable Development
• Arts and Humanities
• Museum and Heritage Studies
• Sociology of Development
• Industrial Sociology

1. Introduction

The high increase in population within communities around the globe has been projected as a long-term phenomenon for humankind (McCarthy, 2016). Owing to this, land has, continuously, become the most important aspect of residential development processes, even as it determines the availability of other important variable requirements for residential development. In fact, all shelters, whether they be in a city, town, hamlet, or home, are built on land. Thus, inasmuch as Kuma and Ighalo (2015) discover the significance of land, where it is seen as a key indicator of housing, its widespread inaccessibility remains a persistent challenge; and this may be attributed, among others, to policy frameworks and public institutions not being capable of, properly, handling population growth through effective land delivery. For this matter, urban land administration, in particular, can be, efficiently, managed (Nagya & Udoekanem, 2022). It is, actually, one of the services offered to those persons with an interest in building residential houses or investing in real estate.

Given that they have an impact on every aspect of the land improvement process, land service providers may be, thoroughly, categorized under important thematic areas. These include legal assistance, dispute resolution, land surveying, valuation, estate administration, real estate financing assistance, planning, and construction services, among others (McCarthy & Thatcher, 2019). Having said this, it is important to note that the housing issue in a developing nation, such as Ghana, mostly, stems from both quantitative and qualitative deficiencies. By implication, there are several mass housing delivery programmes, such as the affordable housing plan, that make use of various private finance initiative models, and public-private partnership efforts, to help any population’s housing requirements (Osei-Kyei et al., 2019; Sanda et al., 2017). Analysts concur that the biggest challenge to producing low-cost housing in any developing nation is, again, access to urban land. In Nigeria, for instance, there is a lot of strain on the land industry due to the high population growth rate and poor land delivery. Here, statistical evidence in Nigeria reveals that, with a land ownership rate of 25.1% in the country (specifically, from the North Central Region) and an immigration rate of 52.2%, there is an indication of a low rate of access to land in the country; which is, also, channeled to affect residential development in the country (Nagya & Udoekanem, 2022). The development rules that are relevant in a certain urban setting, and the efficacy of the agencies that implement them, are, closely, tied to the ease of access to land in determining the rate of housing supply. What is to be built, with what, where, and, to some extent, when, is determined by these regulations; and the manner in which they are applied.

By and large, with privatization and secured land tenure, such as freehold ownership, land transforms from a mere resource into a platform for growth and progress. The positive impact of land ownership extends beyond individual gains. Here, when communities embrace residential development, as outlined by Eccleston et al. (2018), the entire neighborhood flourishes with improved infrastructure, enhanced green spaces, and stronger social connections. Understanding the unique attributes of land, such as the immobility and the perpetual existence of land, encourages us to appreciate its value; and to consider its long-term implications in our decisions and actions. There is the direction to strive for responsible land management and development practices that benefit both present and future generations. Therefore, the right amount of land, at the right price, must be offered for the right purpose, and obtained from the ideal location.

1.1. Problem statement

The land is pivotal for residential development; influencing access to other crucial aspects, such as infrastructure and amenities (Gupta & Tiwari, 2022). Yet, developing countries, including Ghana, face a critical challenge of providing affordable land for citizens; especially, for low-income earners (World Bank Group, 2016). According to Moreda (2023), thus, access to land has been hampered by various issues. It is noteworthy, as a case, that formal and informal institutions share the onus of land delivery in developing countries, such as Ghana (Angsongna et al., 2016; Olanrele et al., 2018). However, while formal institutions aim to offer secure, swift, and affordable land, acquiring land through them, often, involves complex and costly processes, hindering access for many individuals (Olanrele et al., 2018). Actually, inefficiencies in formal institutions may be identified as a major barrier (Alhola, 2021). Concerns, such as inflated land prices (due to increasing demand fueled by urbanization, migration, and population growth), discriminatory allocation practices, and red tape, further, complicate access to land (World Bank Group, 2016). Low-income earners in Ghana are unable to afford outright home purchases; they, often, opt for piecemeal development by acquiring land but building gradually. With the above practical issue setting the stage to explain how the link between land service delivery and residential development in Ghana is important for study (rationale of study), the current study identifies a worth-of-filling loophole. And it is that, while research efforts, such as the study by Ramezani et al. (2023), have assessed the impact of institutional frameworks on the access of land (one way or the other) in varied areas, there has been little, or no, studies conducted to, also, examine the association, through the high-land-value effect, which land service delivery has with residential development at Ampabame. It is not common to find studies that have assessed the influence of stakeholder collaboration, and/or land sector agencies, on land service delivery, as well as its impact on residential development, at Ampabame either; not to talk of attempting to discover the levels of related challenges there. It is, thus, worthwhile for the current research to build upon existing literature by, collectively, performing the above three examinations. Precisely, while both public and private sectors offer land services, this study, somewhat, focuses on land delivery by the public sector.

1.2. Research objectives

The current study, specifically, aims to:

1. Ascertain the levels of complex regulations, bureaucracy, and other challenges, that residential property developers experience, in the acquisition of land at Ampabame.

2. Investigate the relationship, through the high-land-value effect, between land service delivery and residential development at Ampabame.

3. Explore the influence of land sector agencies, and/or stakeholder collaboration, on land service delivery, as well as its impact on residential development, at Ampabame.

2. Literature review

2.1. Land service delivery

Land availability and land service delivery are crucial for optimal land use. Quality land service delivery is cost-effective, efficient, and responsive (Browder, 2019). It involves providing quick and accurate responses to customer needs at minimal cost. This requires efficient resource utilization (Akaateba et al., 2018). Customers, typically, request help with land ownership confirmation, recordkeeping, dispute resolution, and specific services, such as deed registration, land information searches, and building permits (Biitir et al., 2017; Siiba et al., 2018). Response time is, therefore, key to service effectiveness (Akaateba, 2019). Additionally, accurate and readily-available land information is essential for efficient service delivery (Biitir & Nara, 2016). Up-to-date land documentation forms the backbone of effective land service systems (Ehwi et al., 2018).

In the view of Ameyaw and de Vries (2021), four out of every five pieces of land in Ghana fall under the customary tenure system, occupying a vast 80% of the country’s land mass. The remaining 20% consists of public lands, with 90% of these public lands, previously, belonging to customary authorities under compulsory acquisition by the state. The remaining 10% are state-managed lands held in trust for customary owners. Hence, the need to do more to make land available for individual developmental use under the public land tenure system in the Ghanaian context. However, the 2021 Population and Housing Census Report by Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) indicates an estimated total population, including both sexes within Atwima Kwanwoma District in the Ashanti region, of 234,846; with a household population of 232,484, as against a non-household population of 2362. The statistics, further, show that 133,007 of both sex populations within Atwima Kwanwoma District reside in urban areas, while 101,839 of both sex populations within the district reside in rural settings (Ghana Statistical Service, 2021). This implies that, as against the rural areas, there is significant residential development in the urban areas within Atwima Kwanwoma District. This is affirmed by the Ghana Real Estate Sector Report which states that Ghana’s housing market is booming, as it witnesses the impressive development of a 72.86% surge in residential structures within a decade (GIPC, 2023). The number of residential dwellings, thus, skyrocketed from 3.39 million in 2010 to a staggering 5.86 million in 2021. This remarkable growth is transforming the country’s landscape, with new homes and communities springing up across the nation.

Therefore, successful and quality land delivery services, including quality human resource base, right legal framework, proper infrastructure, right policies for sharing data, good working environment, as well as the implementation of good techniques for resolving disputes, have become, significantly, necessary to mitigate the growing demand for land use and development within Atwima Kwanwoma District in the Ashanti region.

2.2. Land acquisition procedures

Land acquisition procedures determine who has access to land. These procedures are influenced by the kind of land ownership; be it that the property to be purchased is a state, stool, land, or, even, vested land. Before presenting the land acquisition procedures, some conceptual issues of land ownership may be provided. These sections are, thus, important; as they describe the basis of the occurrence of land service delivery (before land service delivery affecting residential development).

2.3. Conceptual issues of land ownership

2.3.1. State lands

In Ghana, state lands are defined as those lands which are owned by the government; they are free from any private claims or restrictions. They are acquired, primarily, through two methods. They are:

1. Purchase in the public interest: The President of the Republic can declare any land necessary for public purposes through an executive instrument. In accordance with the State Lands Act of 1962, this grants automatic ownership to the state, upon publication of the instrument.

2. Escheat: Land reverts to the state if there are no legal heirs, or if ownership of land becomes impossible to be determined.

2.3.2. Vested lands

In Ghana, vested lands represent a unique and complex land tenure system where ownership and management responsibilities are divided. Traditionally-owned by stools, or skins, representing communities, these lands undergo a legal transfer of ownership to the president through a published executive order. While the President holds the legal title ‘in trust’ for the benefit of the general public, the indigenous community retains an ‘equitable interest’ as beneficiaries. This means that they have a stake in the land, and potential rights to participate in decisions, as well as to share benefits generated from it (Tshidzumba et al., 2018). The government, typically, through the Lands Commission, manages vested lands for public good; which can include development projects, resource extraction, or conservation efforts. However, while balancing public benefit with community rights is crucial, it, often, leads to conflicting interests. Ensuring transparency, accountability, and community engagement, throughout the process is vital to prevent misuse, and guarantee fair distribution of benefits. This requires careful negotiation, clear communication, and respect for local customs and traditions.

Understanding this dual system’s complexities is essential for various stakeholders, including communities that are, potentially, affected by land use decisions, investors who seek land for projects, and government entities that are responsible for management and public services. By navigating the nuances of vested lands, Ghana can strive for sustainable development that respects both public interest and community rights.

2.3.3. Stool lands

Within Ghana’s land tenure system, stool lands hold a unique position, defined by Article 295 (1) of the 1992 Constitution. These lands, which are controlled by traditional authorities as stools, skins, or community heads, are meant to benefit the community, by and large. This inherent trustworthiness is, further, emphasized by Article 267 (1), requiring stools to hold the land in accordance with customary law and usage, and, ultimately, acting as trustees for the community. However, navigating stool lands is not without its complexities. Determining ownership boundaries, addressing competing claims, and ensuring transparency in decision-making, can be challenging. The reliance on customary law, while providing historical context, sometimes, lacks formal documentation, leading to potential conflicts. Additionally, balancing the community’s needs with potential development opportunities on stool lands requires careful consideration of long-term impacts and equitable benefit sharing.

Despite these challenges, stool lands remain a critical aspect of Ghana’s land tenure system; being, deeply, woven into cultural identity, and community wellbeing. Understanding their unique characteristics, legal framework, and complexities, is crucial for various stakeholders, such as community members, traditional authorities, government institutions, and individuals who are looking to engage with this land category. By acknowledging their history, addressing challenges, and ensuring responsible management, Ghana can strive for a future where stool lands continue to serve their intended purpose; providing for the benefit of communities while contributing to sustainable development.

2.3.4. Acquiring state, or stool, land

Acquiring land starts with the proof of identity of the rightful owner. Owners have the authority and right to make valid land grants (Quaye et al., 2019). Land ownership does not pose any problem with respect to state lands. This is so because, in accordance with Article 258 (1) of the 1992 Constitution, and section 5 of the Lands Commission Act, 2008 (Act 767), stating that there shall be established Lands Commission which shall, in co-ordination with the relevant public agencies and governmental bodies, perform the following functions—(a) on behalf of the government, manage public lands and any lands vested in the president by this constitution or by any other law, or any lands vested in the Commission; (b) advise the government, local authorities and traditional authorities on the policy framework for the development of particular areas of Ghana to ensure that the development of individual pieces of land is coordinated with the relevant development plan for the area concerned; (c) formulate and submit, to government, recommendations on national policy with respect to land use and capability; (d) advise on, and assist in the execution of, a comprehensive programme for the registration of title to land throughout Ghana; (e) perform such other functions as the minister responsible for lands and natural resources may assign to the Commission, the land is owned by the government, and, frequently, issued out or rented by the Lands Commission.

State lands, as owned by the government, and managed by the Lands Commission, offer a relatively-straightforward acquisition process as outlined below:

1. Initial application: Submit a written application to the appropriate Regional Lands Commission through the designated officer.

2. Technical review: The Commission’s technical committee assesses one’s application, and allocates land based on availability.

3. Offer acceptance: One receives an offer, outlining the land and lease terms, which one can accept and review before signing.

4. Lease execution: The chairman of the Regional Lands Commission signs the lease on the government’s behalf.

5. Stamping and registration: One receives the lease for stamping and registration, finalizing the transaction, and confirming his or her legal rights.

A common challenge pertaining to the acquisition of state-owned lands is that, although it is, seemingly, simpler, there exists unequal access to state-owned lands. Favouritism towards influential individuals, thus, has been reported by Teklay (2018); that, sadly, state-owned lands are distributed to influential individuals in society, including politicians and corporate leaders, and this, potentially, hinders fair opportunities for others.

On the other hand, stool lands, which are held in trust by traditional authorities for the community’s benefit, present a more complex acquisition scenario as outlined below:

1. Negotiations and customary law: Engaging with stool authorities, and navigating customary law, forms the heart of the process. This, often, involves lengthy negotiations, and securing approvals from various bodies, such as the Lands Commission, and the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority. The interested person would identify the one who takes care of the land. He or she goes on to carry out enquiries among the indigenous people or the regional secretariat of the Lands Commission. It is important to note that impoverished urban people participate in this informal land market which is, actually, a place where buyers of customary land pay drink money, customarily, for schnapps, to the traditional authorities. Negotiations between the chief and the interested party are, routinely, used to get access to stool lands (Tomaz, 2018).

2. Creation of deed by interested parties: A deed with the customary stipulations for execution is created by the grantee, the caretaker chief, and the Asantehene.

3. Approval of lease: The Lands Commission, then, approves the lease.

4. Registration and stamping: These last steps are the same as those used with respect to public lands as, previously, demonstrated (Biitir & Kuusaana, 2019).

However, as a challenge, the intricate nature of stool land acquisition is susceptible to a lack of transparency and clarity, emanating from the absence of clear and standardized procedures, which can create uncertainty and confusion for prospective buyers, and be translated into prolonged negotiations and disputes.

2.3.5. Nature of housing development in Ghana

The housing market plays a pivotal role in national economic development, impacting physical infrastructure and resident well-being (Nassar et al., 2023). In this vein, Ghana’s system may comprise both formal and informal channels. The formal housing, which is managed by government organizations, caters to middle and high-income individuals (Olanrele et al., 2018). However, its developmental contribution seems limited, with studies suggesting dormancy due to minimal income generation (Biitir et al., 2017). However, the informal housing, which has the potential of dominating the market with over 80% of housing units, involves private players, such as real estate firms, and individual developers (Ato, 2016). These developers purchase land from traditional authorities and rely on small-scale contractors for construction. While offering affordable options, this sector faces challenges, such as lengthy construction times, and difficulties in land acquisition, title registration, and financing (Cobbinah et al., 2018).

2.3.6. Land purchase, and land delivery channels, for residential development through the market

While purchasing land on the open market can be, practically, used to acquire land for housing in some contexts, it is important to acknowledge alternative channels, and their suitability, depending on one’s specific situation (Ryan-Collins et al., 2017). Moreover, it is a fact that colonial and post-colonial adaptations to land tenure systems have resulted in larger tracts of land being subdivided and sold, often through private ownership (Kalabamu, 2019).

2.3.7. Delivering customary lands through state-sanctioned channels

Acquiring land through the allocation board can be impeded by disagreements over compensation for customary rights holders, as highlighted by Rakodi (2016). While local governments, often, attempt to resolve disputes among neighbours or families, particularly, regarding customary land boundaries, more complex cases are referred to the Land Tribunal for adjudication (Rakodi, 2016).

2.3.8. Delivery of land through customary channels to members of the group

The sale of customary lands has, indeed, led to a significant increase in available plots for residential development within various cities across the nation (Agheyisi, 2019). While this phenomenon offers potential benefits, it is crucial to consider its nuances, and potential drawbacks, as well.

2.3.9. Potential benefits of customary channels

1. Increased access to land: This method offers opportunities for individuals, particularly, those outside the formal system, to acquire land for housing at potentially-lower costs, compared to market purchases.

2. Community involvement and trust: Many buyers in such channels express confidence in their ownership due to familiarity with, and trust in, the supporting societal structures that govern these arrangements (Agheyisi, 2019).

2.3.10. Considerations and potential drawbacks of customary channels

1. Formal documentation: Lack of formal documentation could lead to future ownership disputes and challenges in accessing essential services like utilities.

2. Legal complexities: Navigating customary land transactions can be intricate, involving potential conflicts with formal legal frameworks and competing claims.

3. Unsustainable practices: Unsustainable practices of land use might contribute to environmental degradation, and strain on infrastructure, in rapidly-developing areas.

4. Limited scalability: Reliance on customary systems may not be adequate to meet the long-term housing needs of growing urban populations.

2.3.11. Self-allocation

While self-allocation (occupying government land without permission) might seem like a way for low-income households to access free land, it presents significant issues for both settlers and the government. These issues are:

1. Legality: This approach is illegal since the land, formally, belongs to the government (Agheyisi, 2019). This can lead to eviction, demolition of structures, and legal consequences, for settlers.

2. Sustainability: Settling on an unsuited-for-development land can have severe environmental consequences, such as deforestation, soil erosion, and increased strain on resources.

3. Government challenges: Informal settlements on government land pose challenges for infrastructure development, service provision, and overall urban planning.

4. Lack of security: Residents in such settlements, often, lack secure tenure (they have no legal ownership or protection from eviction), hindering potential investments, and long-term stability.

3. Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework of the connection between land service delivery and residential development may be seen in Figure 1. Basically, it details out what may lead to land service delivery, including land ownership and land acquisition (this being the essence of the preceding sections of the literature review); and what may ensue, through the high-land-value effect, after the presence of land service delivery, as far as the impact on residential development is concerned.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the link between land service delivery and residential development.

Source: The compilation of authors.

4. Research methodology

In this section, the study area, research design, research sample, source of data, among others, are presented.

4.1. Study area

The study area for this research is Ampabame No.1 which is located within the Atwima Kwanwoma District. The locality can be accessed via Ahodwo Roundabout—Melcom Road, and it is about 5 km away from Ahodwo Township. The road network within the vicinity is accessible, but untarred, as at the time of conducting this study. The area is made up of an old town and an emerging new community. It shares a boundary with Ampeyoo and Aboabo. The map below, with the sea blue colour portion, is the pictorial view of the study area (Figure 2).

Figure 2. District map of Atwima Kwanwoma.

Source: Old map accessed by authors.

4.2. Research design

The approach used in carrying out this research is both qualitative and quantitative in nature. The mixed methods research (MMR), as hinted by Dawadi et al. (2021), thus, is a comprehensive research approach that combines qualitative and quantitative data collection, analysis, interpretation, and reporting, to address research questions in a nuanced and insightful manner. Put in another way, drawing upon both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, MMR offers a robust framework for investigating research questions in a principled and rigorous fashion. Inasmuch as a research design can be categorized in different ways, including explanatory design, exploratory design, and descriptive design, the design to apply depends on the nature of the research questions, and the objectives the study intends to achieve. In fact, descriptive research design is a very important design in studies of such nature, as the design renders responses to questions that take these forms: what, how, when, and where. The study, therefore, adopts the descriptive research design as its research design. The descriptive study design is adoptive because it gives a detailed information about the research variables, and/or a full description of the link between land delivery and residential development (and/or residential real-estate investment).

4.3. Research sample

The term ‘sample’ refers to a part of the total collection of individuals, or things, with comparable, or equal, qualities that the researchers believe will be helpful, and crucial, for achieving their goals. Some land owners, and real estate owners, at Ampabame, and some staff from the Lands Commission, and the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority, make up the study’s sample.

4.4. Sample size and sampling techniques

By and large, purposive sampling approaches should be employed when it is, nearly, difficult to estimate the size of the real population, but it is, rather, simple to select several clusters or organizations that might give an individual the needed information. This claim serves as the foundation for the current study’s decision to use this sampling strategy. In the purposive sampling technique, a researcher’s judgement is used to select the group, class, or organization, to be researched about. As a result, it is also known as the judgmental, subjective, or selected, sampling technique (Saunders et al., 2009). The sample size for the study, in this case, is 150; 140 land owners, and real estate owners, at Ampabame, and 10 staff from the Lands Commission, and the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority.

4.5. Source of data

Data can be obtained from primary or secondary sources (Ajayi, 2017). The data used for the current study is, purely, primary data. Primary data are those data that a researcher obtains, directly, from the field. Such data are fresh and have not been used, or obtained, by any research in the field. Secondary data, on the other hand, are those data that a researcher generates from sources other than, directly, from the research population. Such data is obtained, mostly, from organizational progress reports, annual reports, and audit reports. Here, the data can, also, be derived from articles and journals.

4.6. Research instrument

There are several research instruments that are used to gather data, depending on the research objective(s), the type of data, and the source of data. Considering the source of data, among others, the current study uses instruments, the questionnaire, and the interview guide, to collect the data.

4.7. Questionnaire

The questionnaire is an instrument used to collect any data form. Naturally, the questionnaire can be close-ended or open-ended (Hyman & Sierra, 2016). The former is that which limits the respondent to select among the given options. It prevents the respondent from expressing his or her feelings, and thoughts, concerning the topic under study. Conversely, the latter is open to the expression of thoughts and feelings. Moreover, the questionnaire can be structured and semi-structured (Harris & Brown, 2019). For the current research, the questionnaire, in general, is used to collect data from some land owners, and some real estate investors, in the study area; with 2020 being the year of data collection.

4.8. Interview guide

The interview guide consists of a set of high-level questions that an interviewer intends to ask an interviewee during an interview (Menzies et al., 2016). In conducting the interview, a researcher may use the recorder to record the process; after seeking the consent of an interviewee. The interview guide is used to collect data from staff of the Lands Commission, and the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority; and the year of data collection is 2023.

4.9. Data analysis

Data evaluation is the process of adding meaning to the data gathered. In other words, it is the transition of data, from its raw state to information. Generally, and for the current study, the collected data is, then, edited, and cleaned to ensure consistency and data accuracy. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 25 is, then, used to enter the data. To present the data, descriptive statistics, such as mean and standard deviation, are employed. The results are, at that moment, presented using tables that depict their frequencies and percentages. Precisely, the descriptive analysis is used to analyze the demographic background. Inferential analysis is, also, done to establish the relationship between, in this case, land delivery and residential development.

5. Results and discussion

This section presents the findings, and discussion of such findings, pertaining to the study objectives.

5.1. Residential property developers’ challenges in the acquisition of land

Objective 1: To ascertain the levels of complex regulations, bureaucracy, and other challenges, that residential property developers experience, in acquiring land at Ampabame.

In Ghana, land acquisition is one of the major issues with which residents and private owners are confronted. Land is the most powerful asset on the globe; due to its high demand rate by both government and developers. Land forms about 60–75% wealth of every community. Basically, the land size determines the authority, and powers, of particular chiefs. Land is an indisputable resource in supporting life; due to its fundamental inputs into agricultural, and food, security globally.

Table 1 presents the levels of various challenges, which residential property developers (thus, some land owners, and real estate owners, at Ampabame) face, in the acquisition of land at Ampabame within Kumasi.

Table 1. Residential property developers’ challenges in the acquisition of land.

	N	Min	Max	Mean	SD
Weak financial strength	140	1.00	5.00	4.335	.641
Inadequate domestic capital market	140	1.00	5.00	3.678	.087
Lack of long-term financing instrument	140	1.00	5.00	4.421	.822
Inefficient and unsustainable credit delivery to the housing sector	140	1.00	5.00	4.301	.633
Politicization of housing issues in the country	140	1.00	5.00	4.435	.849
Unstable regulatory settings/political interference	140	1.00	5.00	4.092	.031
Lack of comprehensive policy, legal and instrumental frameworks	140	1.00	5.00	4.457	.499
Poor design implementation resulting from inability to assess investment proposals	140	1.00	5.00	3.807	.540
Lack of institutional capacity to undertake large and complex projects	140	1.00	5.00	4.185	.844
Ineffective coordination and supervision by government agencies	140	1.00	5.00	4.642	.480
Lack of available lands for housing developments	140	1.00	5.00	4.371	.649
Overpricing of cost of lands	140	1.00	5.00	4.292	.704
Litigation on land ownership and related issues	140	1.00	5.00	4.428	.658
Disputed titles and litigation/multiple sale	140	1.00	5.00	4.550	.499
Inadequate, or lack of, credible land data	140	1.00	5.00	4.757	.430
Rapid escalation of land prices	140	1.00	5.00	4.628	.649
Cumbersome procedures in land registration	140	1.00	5.00	4.585	.494
Poor coordination (and cooperation) among/between developers and utilities and services providers in provision of serviced land plots	140	1.00	5.00	4.835	.371
Difficulty in acquiring large tracts of land (especially, from different land-owning groups)	140	1.00	5.00	4.628	.484

Source: Survey Data, 2023.

From this table, it can be seen that the greatest challenge is poor coordination (and cooperation) among, and between, residential property developers and utilities & services providers in the provision of serviced land plots, as the majority of the respondents affirm it; Mean (M) = 4.84, Standard Deviation (SD) = 0.37. This challenge is found by researchers, such as Shahzad et al. (2022) and Yazdani et al. (2014), to be common; to them, it is very difficult for residential property developers and utilities & services providers to sustain various developing lands. Similarly, the current study, it implies that the probability of observing the development of residences at Ampabame could be very low. Having a mean of 4.76, and a standard deviation of 0.43, another identified challenge is inadequate, or lack of, credible data about the land to be purchased. This finding is affirmed by Göbel et al. (2005); in that, the majority of lands in Ghana are not, properly, documented, making it tedious to acquire reliable information about such lands. The implication of this challenge may be for residential property developers to, first, consult the chief of the community before making any purchase of land. By so doing, one avoids the loss of money and property.

Most of the respondents, also, strongly agree that there is ineffective coordination and supervision by government agencies (M = 4.64, SD = 0.48). By implication, the rate at which rural and urban houses are developed, in the long run, tends to dwindle. Acquiring land in vast size, especially, when the land is owned by different land-owning groups, is another problem which is faced by residential property developers. For a situation as this, there is the tendency that land acquisition will be very difficult; this is because each group may stress in getting the legit papers. With a mean of 4.63, and a standard deviation of 0.48, this result of the current study is, somewhat, corroborated by the discovery of the study which was conducted by Miller et al. (2020); to these researchers, vast lands are very intricate to be obtained in quite a number of ways.

Furthermore, the rapid escalation of land prices is found to be a common challenge for the respondents of the study (M = 4.63, SD = 0.65). This causes a downward pressure on the demand for land by residential property developers; there is no motivation to develop, for instance, estates eventually. In addition, the majority of the respondents agrees, strongly, that the land registration procedures are cumbersome (M = 4.58, SD = 0.49). When this occurs, chances of delivering land to residential property developers are minimal, and this hampers the growth and development of dwellings in the community and beyond.

5.2. High-land-value effect of land service delivery on residential development

Objective 2: To investigate the relationship, through the high-land-value effect, between land service delivery and residential development at Ampabame.

Land acquisition is a major problem facing residential property developers in Ghana. In retrospect, a population upsurge (especially, at a fast rate), generally, leads to an increase in land demand (particularly, at a rapid rate) for residential, and other, purposes. By and large, the increasing demand for land, then, kindles haphazard, and/or poor, land service delivery (if not, properly, checked) which, in turn, fuels high land values (mostly, at a rapid rate) in the country. Meanwhile, land service delivery may be measured by some variables, such as initial capital requirement for purchasing land, which may stimulate high land values. Somewhat, this is where land acquisition becomes a chief problem for residential property developers in Ghana. For that matter, this section assesses the high-land-value effect of land service delivery, by its proxies, on residential development at Ampabame.

5.3. Initial capital requirement for purchasing land: a stimulant of land service delivery in determining high (or low) land value

What is the initial capital requirement for purchasing land? The required capital for the purchasing of land has increased over time. This situation has compounded, due to a lot of external factors, such as the demand for land by expatriates who are more than willing (and prepared) to pay more, acting in the market; making it difficult for local people to own land. This confirms the postulation which was given by Habitat (2021) of the United Nations; that, to a large extent, the cost of owning housing property is high, due to the expensive nature of land. Concerning the required initial capital for purchasing land, this section, thus, presents the various experiences of the respondents residing at Ampabame.

From Figure 3, it is shown that land, mostly, has been acquired with an initial capital above Ghc15,000 (48.6%), according to the reactions of 68 respondents; 25 (17.9%) and 26 (18.6%) of the respondents replied that they acquired their land with an initial capital between Ghc8000 and Ghc10,000, as well as between Ghc11,000 and Ghc15,000, respectively. Those who acquired land with an initial capital between Ghc5000 and Ghc7000 are 21 in number, which represents 15% of the population. In addition, it is found (in that order) that it is very difficult for the ‘above Ghc15,000’ category of respondents to build and develop housing projects. Given these results, the current study is consistent with the propensity of the study by Afrane (2016) in postulating that, due to high values placed on some lands, low (or inadequate) housing development ensues, which can result in some individuals sleeping on the streets. By implication, the outrageous initial capital requirement for purchasing land, through the high-land-value effect, worsens (the level of) residential development; a positive relationship may, therefore, be obtained.

Figure 3. Initial capital requirement.

Source: Survey Data, 2023.

5.4. Other stimulants of land service delivery in determining high (or low) land value

This segment of the study assesses the other factors (serving as proxies of land service delivery) that determine high (or low) values placed on lands; and their effects on residential development at Ampabame. Some of the considered factors include the keeping of records pertaining to land transactions, the location of land, the consideration of land use (or the concern about purpose for acquiring land) before selling land, and the demand for, and supply of, land as an economic factor. A chunk of the detailed reactions from the 140 respondents, in this regard, can be obtained in Table 2.

Table 2. Other stimulants of land service delivery for high (or low) land value.

Response	Frequency	Percentage
Do you have records of land transactions?
Yes	67	47.9
No	73	52.1
Total	140	100
Do you consider land use before selling land?
Yes	84	60
No	56	40
Total	140	100
Does the demand for land, and/or its rate of increase, have any influence on the supply of land and/or its rate of increase?
Yes	109	77.9
No	31	22.1
Total	140	100

Source: Survey Data, 2023.

From Table 2, 67 respondents, representing 47.9% of the population, have records of land transactions. This means that the majority of the respondents, thus, 73 respondents representing 52.1% of the population, have no records of land transactions. Additionally, while 84 respondents, representing 60% of the population, consider the use of land before selling it, 56 respondents, representing 40% of the 140 respondents, do not think about what land may be used for before selling (or renting) it to other people. It is, also, found, based on the reactions from 109 respondents (representing 77.9%), that the demand for land, and/or the rate at which lands are being demanded, has an influence on the supply of land and/or the rate at which lands are being supplied; the reverse being true for the remaining 31 respondents. To this point, it may imply, through the high-land-value effect, that the (proper) keeping of land transaction records could instigate low land values, and ameliorate (the level of) residential development, otherwise, the study may not have obtained almost half of the population which seems to know the essence of keeping such records; the (careful) consideration of land use could lead to low land values, and improve (the level of) housing projects, as the importance of being concerned about land use may have been accepted by, what is obtained to be, more than half of the population; and, when the demand for land, and/or its rate of increase, does not attract the (corresponding but judicious) supply of land, and/or its rate of increase, high land values could be triggered, leading to (the level of) residential development being aggravated, since the significance of matching the supply of land to the demand for land, in a prudent manner, may have been acknowledged by (such a huge number as) the obtained 109 respondents. Favourably, however, the above conjectures are corroborated by the later-declared justification of these respondents, after reacting with ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

5.5. Which of the given factors, in selling land for residential development, may be considered, and prioritized, as accounting for the generally-preferable land values?

Figure 4 presents the results of 3 given factors; one of which a respondent may consider and prioritize, thus, being the most significant, as accounting for low land values (agreed by all respondents to be the generally-preferable values), before selling land for residential development. Out of the 140 respondents, 50 (representing about 36%), purposefully, choose ‘convenient location’ to be the most important factor, among the given determinants, to consider in selling land for residential development, as it stimulates the utmost low land values. Moreover, there is the selection of ‘judicious use of land’ by 46 respondents (representing about 33%) who, strongly, opine that such a factor, relative to the others, brings about low land values, and growth in the development of residences. Also, out of the total population, there is the choice of ‘concern about affordable price’ by 44 respondents (representing about 31%) who, vehemently, think that such a factor is the truest determinant, among the others, of low land values which, in turn, trigger residential development. This latter result is in line with the study by Bentley (2017); which, indirectly, highlighted that the influence of being concerned about land price is positive on housing development.

Figure 4. Prioritized and considered factors in (ultimately) selling land for housing development.

Source: Survey Data, 2023.

5.6. After encountering the generally-preferable land values, what does majority of the residents use their purchased land for?

In Figure 5, the majority of the population, thus, 87 respondents (representing 62%), indicates that most of the purchased lands are used for personal building, while the remaining 53 respondents (representing 38%) specify that they use the purchased land for establishing their own business. Given that personal building is equivalent to residential development, these findings may affirm the significance of residential development being a predominant target (while there is, comparatively, a positive-and-greater effect) of (proper) land service delivery; this, to a large extent, justifies the inquiry of the current study.

Figure 5. Use of purchased land.

Source: Survey Data, 2023.

5.7. In what related ways do high land values affect individuals?

According to 50 respondents (representing 35.7%), the main reason for land values to be, moderately, placed is that high land values, directly, reduce residential development. Also, on the word of 44 respondents (representing 31.4%), when a high value is placed on land, it, primarily, excludes the poor from purchasing it, since they cannot afford it. In the stance of 46 respondents (representing 32.9%), when there are high land values, there is a potential increase in the housing deficit. Given that residential development is equivalent to the others above, especially, where the distinct reactions of the respondents are, proportionately, similar, these outcomes may confirm the worth of residential development being a prime target (while there is, relatively, a positive-and-greatest effect) of (appropriate) land service delivery; this, considerably, rationalizes the inquiry of the current study (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Related ways of high land values affecting individuals.

Source: Survey Data, 2023.

5.8. Influence of land sector agencies on land service delivery; and its impact on residential development

Objective 3: To explore the influence of land sector agencies, and/or stakeholder collaboration, on land service delivery, as well as its impact on residential development, at Ampabame.

5.9. Demographic information of, and responses from, land sector agencies

In this section, qualitative results from a sample of 10 interviewed staff, representing the Lands Commission, and the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority, are presented in this study. A brief description of the respondents’ demographics data is outlined here. In fact, the results are analyzed based on the interview guide which consists of three sections; the first section is devoted to demographic data, the second section discusses issues (especially, ones that have a bearing on influence, approaches, and challenges) about land acquisition and delivery, as well as some issues pertaining to relevant plans, and/or mechanisms, for the study area, and the final section presents general questions, in relation to land development at Ampabame within Atwima Kwanwoma District, demanding reactions (based on the perspectives of relevant land sector agencies).

5.10. Demographic information of land sector agencies

It can be seen from Table 3 (which contains some demographic data of the respondents) that the sample consists of four females and six males. The respondents’ age ranges from 28 to 47 years; with two being single, and eight being married. Furthermore, this study shows that all the respondents have children, with the exception of 1. Additionally, all the respondents are permanent staff; with two of them being natives of the study area. Actually, all the areas of position, such as management or administration, and supervision, and all the roles of work, such as finance officer or accountant, technical land and quality surveying, valuation officer, planning officer, and estate officer, are occupied by these respondents in their respective workplaces.

Table 3. Demographic data of respondents (land sector agencies).

Respondent	Age (years)	Sex	Marital status	Children	Period of work (years)	Employment status	Native
Respondent 1	36	M	Married	4	10	Permanent	No
Respondent 2	28	M	Single	0	3	Permanent	No
Respondent 3	43	M	Married	3	5	Permanent	Yes
Respondent 4	29	F	Single	1	5	Permanent	No
Respondent 5	33	M	Married	3	6	Permanent	No
Respondent 6	40	F	Married	2	7	Permanent	Yes
Respondent 7	47	F	Married	5	9	Permanent	No
Respondent 8	39	M	Married	3	6	Permanent	No
Respondent 9	43	M	Married	2	15	Permanent	No
Respondent 10	34	F	Married	4	9	Permanent	No

Source: Survey Data, 2023.

5.11. Key functions of land sector agencies in land service delivery and residential development

The interview with the identified land sector agencies in the Kumasi metropolis reveals that there are various approaches, that the land sector agencies use, in expanding land delivery for residential development; which includes institutional reform and legal system. These two measures are the most widely-used methods. In terms of institutional reform, the sector has undergone a lot of reforms; where some departments have been put together under one umbrella, to ensure free flow of information pertinent to land development in the country. This reform has increased the delivery of land within the district in an efficient and effective manner; thereby, encouraging more residents to acquire property within the district, to ensure development. The Lands Commission Act, Act (767), which was passed by parliament, ensures that more power is given to the survey department, the land valuation board, the land title registry, and other sectors, all of which operate under the Lands Commission. Through the institutional reform, the land sector agencies have been able to overcome some tracked logistics challenges, and traced issues of capacity building; and there has been the need to, still, do more.

The legal system is another strategy which is used by the land sector agencies; when attempting to deal with matters concerning land delivery and acquisition, as well as residential development. Various reforms have been initiated; including the amendment of obsolete statutes that serve as an impediment to management, in matters of land acquisition and residential development, due to high cost. To the staff of the land sector agencies, such challenging processes, or mechanisms, and the attempt to enact reforms in eradicating such challenges (over the years), have (normally) propelled sluggishness, and are, sometimes, exorbitant; particularly, to the poor and unemployed in the community. As part of the response to the aforementioned challenges, the land sector agencies are, currently, undertaking legal changes, including land policies, land laws, customary law, and others, which are, somewhat, complementary to the former Land Administration Project (LAP). It is of the view that, if various land laws and rules, as well as customary procedures, are well implemented, then, individuals can (efficiently) use land for residential development, irrespective of their status in life, or role in the community.

5.12. Some general questions (and reactions) in relation to the acquisition, and/or delivery, and development of land

This section presents some general questions presented to, and reactions received from, the respondents in relation to the acquisition, and/or delivery, and development of land.

5.12.1. How do prospective residents and developers acquire land, and how much do they pay?

There are some parcels of available land for prospective property developers who can be found in the study area. This enable s the land sector agencies to keep a low price of land for development, such as in agriculture, as well as to ensure that, while there are available parcels for agricultural purposes, urbanization does not take away much land for residential development. The price of land, which is paid by a property developer, depends on the demand and supply of land (meant to be developed), as well as the location of the land. The economic principle of demand and supply, which decides who has the right to access the land, is, still, the basis for determining who has access to it. Although the process of gaining access to land may be quick and simple, this will, also, make it more inexpensive for the less privileged members of the community. The reactions, and/or perspectives, from some of the land sector agencies are, hereby, presented.

One of the respondents reiterates:

The price of land for development will never reduce; it is rather increasing at a faster rate because, day in day out, many people migrate to Kumasi, and the number of houses are ‘unable to deliver’. Therefore, there are still housing deficit; making the developers to access land, while the chiefs are (also) taking advantage of the demand for land to increase prices. If drastic measures are not taken, it will get to a point where the ordinary Ghanaian cannot own land.

Another respondent asserts:

Until government and other state institutions are empowered to function, fully, without political interference, the pricing situation may, surely, go out of control. The price keeps on increasing every day. This is due to unban drift; particularly, moving from the rural area to the urban setting. This issue is giving the land sector agencies a lot of challenges.

The outcome is likely to support the conclusions of World Bank Group (2016) that, despite the populations’ expanding requirements, African countries fall short when it comes to providing affordable land, and housing, for their residents. According to the above study, the global population is expected to increase by 2.4 billion between 2015 and 2050; of which Africa is expected to have about a 1.3-billion increment in population. By implication, government has to enforce measures that will either reduce the price of land or make it stable for more individuals to own (at least) one house.

5.12.2. How, often, do land sector agencies reallocate somebody’s plot of land, and why?

Here, the study seeks to examine the extent to which land agencies, often, reallocate plot of land that has been, previously, issued to somebody, but, subsequently, issued to another person. The reaction, and/or perspective, from one of the land sector agencies is, hereby, presented.

One of the respondents (from land and quality surveying offices), thus, retells:

Basically, there is no specific period for land (that has been, formerly, issued to somebody) to be reallocated to another person, but what we do is, normally, the stools enter into a covenant with the ‘allottees’; to develop the land within a time frame of three (3) years. During this period, the ‘allottees’ are required to pay ground rent; however, failure on the part of the ‘allottees’ to observe the terms and conditions of using the covenant leads to re-entry off the land.

6. Conclusion

Land acquisition may, significantly, contribute to high land values, posing challenges for residential developers who, even, aim to establish real-estate businesses in the community. Thus, the impact of land acquisition on residential development can be both positive and negative; for the latter, particularly, when crucial measures and strategies are not, carefully, considered. A major hurdle in the land sector stems from the intricate nature of land ownership, and/or land tenure systems, in the country.

Furthermore, both land delivery channels and land sector agencies encounter obstacles, due to a lack of logistical and financial support, making it challenging to carry out their activities, independently, without external influences from the state or other individuals. So, strengthening capacity building, pertaining to land sector agencies, is imperative, and encouraging more agencies with financial and human resource capital, to support them in restructuring laws that hinder their work is essential.

In addition, this study focused on Ampabame within the district of Atwima Kwanwoma, indicates that land delivery for residential development is costly, creating unfavourable conditions for development. The response to developers’ requests is, thus, too high, making land service delivery for residential development an expensive endeavor. Consequently, a significant reform is needed to enlighten both residential property owners and land sector agencies; instituting measures that will attract more property developers into the community, for more feasible and sustainable development.

7. Recommendations

A key obstacle, identified in the study, is the lack of cooperation among various community stakeholders regarding land acquisition, hindering development progress. These stakeholders include the Lands Commission, chiefs and elders, family heads, and the district assembly. To overcome this hurdle, increased coordination, and unwavering commitment from all parties, is crucial to streamline the acquisition process and to make it more flexible for residential developers.

Furthermore, the study highlights challenges in relation to inflated land prices, excessive cost markups, and cumbersome land registration procedures. To address these challenges, it is worthy to propose the establishment (and/or restructuring) of a more dedicated Lands Commission, which is, solely, focused on regulating the land market, by the government and policymakers. This streamlined system would facilitate smoother and faster land acquisition for property developers; ultimately, benefitting both the community and the housing sector.

Besides, given that residential property developers have been found to, regularly, complain about inaccessible, and/or poor, land service delivery (driven) by state institutions, which affects residential development in an unfavourable way, there must be strict enforcement, and implementation, of the reforms in the Lands Act 2020; to ensure the cohesive development of residential neighborhoods in Ghana.

Author contributions

Agyemang Frimpong (AF) conception and design, and wrote the first draft. Ronald Osei Mensah (ROM) wrote the analysis and the interpretation of data and reviewed the entire manuscript. Maame Afua Nkrumah (MAN) worked on the drafting of the paper, revising it critically for intellectual content and the final approval of the version to be published. All the authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate everyone who agreed to partake in the study, and who gave their informed consent. A special ‘thank you’ goes to Surveyor Richard Owusu Afoakwa for his guidance; also, for taking time of his busy schedule to read through the manuscript, to make the necessary corrections. Furthermore, the authors extend some appreciation to the Lands Commission of Ghana; for the invaluable advice and assistance during the course of this research.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data generated in support of the study results is referenced in the paper but will be made available when requested by relevant institution(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Agyemang Frimpong

Dr. Agyemang Frimpong is currently a Commissioner with the Public Services Commission of Ghana. Dr. Frimpong has over 20 years of experience as a public administration academic and practitioner. At The University of Akron-Ohio in the United States, where he also lectured as a member of the Faculty of Public Administration and Urban Studies. He earned his PhD in Public Administration and Urban Policy. Frimpong is an expert in monitoring and evaluation and has interest in research.

Ronald Osei Mensah

Ronald Osei Mensah is a Lecturer at the Takoradi Technical University’s Social Development Section and a doctoral researcher at the University of Cape Coast, Ghana, Department of Sociology and Anthropology. His areas of interest in research include media studies, African history, sociology of education, criminology, and criminal justice education.

Maame Afua Nkrumah

Maame Afua Nkrumah researches mainly in Educational Quality Assurance and Institutional Effectiveness. She is an Associate Professor at the Social Development Section of the Centre for Languages and Liberal Studies of the Takoradi Technical University (TTU). She is a trained teacher who has taught at all levels of the educational ladder. She has over thirty-two publications to her credit. Currently, she teaches precision quality, Social Psychology and Research Methods at TTU and has over 15 years’ of teaching experience.

Appendix A:

Questionnaire for residents/property developers

Survey

This questionnaire has been designed to solicit information for, only, academic purposes. Specifically, it forms part of a study which is focused on the topic: Investigating the Link between Land Service Delivery and Residential Development in Ghana: A Case Study of Ampabame within Atwima Kwanwoma District in Kumasi. Before replying, read each question carefully. Alternatively, choose the best options from a list of potential reactions for each question; by checking, or ticking, the relevant box. Fill in the blanks where alternate responses are not given. You may be sure of this exercise being kept confidential because it will, only, be utilized for academic purposes. Objective responses, to be offered, would be, highly, appreciated. Please, read the instruction(s) under each section of the instrument; to assist you in your responses.

Respondent’s No. ……………………. Date …/……./2023

Section A: To ascertain the levels of complex regulations, bureaucracy, and other challenges, which residential property developers experience, in the acquisition of land at Ampabame

Please, indicate your level of understanding with the following statements which relate, by and large, to the challenges, that residential property developers face, in the acquisition of land. Using a scale of 1–5, where: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree, tick your level of understanding.

Table

No	Statement	1	2	3	4	5
1	Weak financial strength
2	Inadequate domestic capital market
3	Lack of long-term financing instrument
4	Inefficient and unsustainable credit delivery to the housing sector
5	Politicization of housing issues in the country
6	Unstable regulatory settings/political interference
7	Lack of comprehensive policy, legal and instrumental frameworks
8	Poor design implementation resulting from inability to assess investment proposals
9	Lack of institutional capacity to undertake large and complex projects
10	Ineffective coordination and supervision by government agencies
11	Lack of available lands for housing developments
12	Overpricing of cost of lands
13	Litigation on land ownership and related issues
14	Disputed titles and litigation/multiple sale
15	Inadequate, or lack of, credible land data
16	Rapid escalation of land prices
17	Cumbersome procedures in land registration
18	Poor coordination (and cooperation) among/between developers and utilities and services providers in provision of serviced land plots
19	Difficulty in acquiring large tracts of land (especially, from different land-owning groups)

Section B: To investigate the relationship, through the high-land-value effect, between land service delivery and residential development at Ampabame

Please, tick any of the following that (best) suits your understanding on the relationship, through the high-land-value effect, between land service delivery and residential development at Ampabame in Kumasi. Please, briefly, provide answers where appropriate.

1. What is the initial capital requirement for purchasing land?

   1. Ghc5000–Ghc7000 ()

   2. Ghc8000–Ghc10,000 ()

   3. Ghc11,000–Ghc15,000 ()

   4. Above Ghc15,000 ()

2. From the above, based on your category of choice, how easy or difficult is it in developing residences?

   1. Very Difficult ()

   2. Difficult ()

   3. Neutral ()

   4. Easy ()

   5. Very Easy ()

3. Do you have record(s) of land transactions?

   1. Yes ()

   2. No ()

4. Please, provide the reason(s)/comment(s) for your response above.

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. Do you consider land use before selling land?

   1. Yes ()

   2. No ()

6. Please, provide the reason(s)/comment(s) for your response above.

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. Does the demand for land, and/or its rate of increase, have any influence on the supply of land and/or its rate of increase?

   1. Yes ()

   2. No ()

8. Please, provide the reason(s)/comment(s) for your response above.

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

9. Which one of the two do you consider as the generally-preferable land values?

   1. High Land Values ()

   2. Low Land Values ()

10. Which of the given factors, in selling land for residential development, may be considered, and prioritized, as accounting for the generally-preferable land values? (if applicable to you)

    1. Convenient Location ()

    2. Concern about Affordable Price ()

    3. Judicious Use of Land

11. After encountering the generally-preferable land values, what (categorically) does majority of the residents use their purchased land for? (if applicable to you)

    ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

12. Are there any remarks/comments about the process concerning land service delivery and residential development (especially, in Ghana)?

    ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

13. In What Related Ways Do High Land Values Affect Individuals?

    1. Reduction in Residential Development ()

    2. Exclusion of the Poor from Land Market ()

    3. Increase in Housing Deficit ()

    4. None of the above ()

Appendix B:

Interview guide for land agencies

Objective: To explore the influence of land sector agencies, and/or stakeholder collaboration, on land service delivery, as well as its impact on residential development, at Ampabame.

Survey

This interview guide has been designed to solicit information for, only, academic purposes. Specifically, it forms part of a study which is focused on the topic: Investigating the Link between Land Service Delivery and Residential Development in Ghana: A Case Study of Ampabame within Atwima Kwanwoma District in Kumasi. Before replying, read each question carefully. Alternatively, choose the best options from a list of potential reactions for each question; by checking, or ticking, the relevant box. Fill in the blanks where alternate responses are not given. You may be sure of this exercise being kept confidential because it will, only, be utilized for academic purposes. Objective responses, to be offered, would be, highly, appreciated. Please, read the instruction(s) under each section of the instrument; to assist you in your responses.

Respondent’s No. ……………………. Date …/……./2023

Section A: Demographic information of land sector agencies

Please, briefly, provide your responses; and tick where appropriate.

1. How old are you?

   …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What is your gender/sex?

   …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. What is your marital status?

   …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. How many children do you have?

   …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. What, broadly, is your area of position?

   …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. What, specifically, is your role of work?

   ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. How long have you been working in your area of position?

   …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. What is your status of employment currently? (Permanent? Contract? Causal? Other?)

   …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Are you a native of Ampabame?

   1. Yes ()

   2. No ()

Section B: Key functions of land sector agencies in land service delivery and residential development

Please, briefly, provide your responses.

Part 1: Approaches and Issues

1. What are the various approaches, which the land sector agencies use, in expanding land delivery for residential development?

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What are some of the issues, and/or challenges, which are associated with your response (about the approaches) above?

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Part 2: Plans and Issues

1. For the future, what constructive plan(s), and mechanism(s), have the land sector agencies laid, or are (currently) laying, in expanding land delivery for residential development?

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above plan(s) and mechanism(s).

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section C: General questions (and reactions) in relation to the acquisition, and/or delivery, and development of land

Please, briefly, provide your responses; and tick where appropriate.

1. How do prospective residents and developers acquire land, and how much do they pay?

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

   ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. How long, after purchasing land, do land sector agencies anticipate of property developers to start and finish construction?

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4. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

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5. How, often, do land sector agencies reallocate somebody’s plot of land, and why?

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6. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

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7. What procedures do you use for such reallocation?

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8. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

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9. Is it difficult for plot (of land) recipients to obtain a lease?

   1. Yes ()

   2. No ()

10. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

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11. How long does it take for plot (of land) recipients to obtain a registered lease?

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12. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

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13. Do you, and/or land sector agencies, screen those individuals to whom you allocate plot(s) of land?

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14. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

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15. What criteria of screening do you, and/or land sector agencies, use, if any?

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16. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

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17. Do you, and/or land sector agencies, use land guards to protect your land?

    1. Yes ()

    2. No ()

18. Please, provide any noteworthy issue(s)/comment(s) concerning the above rejoinder.

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