Growth, not digestibility, in chickens receiving reduced-protein diets is independent of non-specific amino-nitrogen sources when the essential-to-total-nitrogen ratio is constant and lower than 50%

References

• Aftab, U., M. Ashraf, and Z. Jiang. 2006. “Low Protein Diets for Broilers.” Worlds Poultry Science Journal 62 (4): 688–701. https://doi.org/10.1079/Wps2005121. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000242736100009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajao, A. M., D. White, W. K. Kim, and O. A. Olukosi. 2022. “Partial Replacement of Soybean Meal with Canola Meal or Corn DDGS in Low-Protein Diets Supplemented with Crystalline Amino Acids-Effect on Growth Performance, Whole-Body Composition, and Litter Characteristics.” Animals (Basel) 12 (19). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12192662. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36230403.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Allen, N. K., and D. H. Baker. 1974. “Quantitative Evaluation of Nonspecific Nitrogen Sources for the Growing Chick.” Poultry Science 53 (1): 258–264. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0530258. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4833033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AOAC. 2016. Official Methods of Analysis. 20th ed. Washington, DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
   Google Scholar
• Bansil, R., and B. S. Turner. 2006. “Mucin Structure, Aggregation, Physiological Functions and Biomedical Applications.” Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 11 (2–3): 164–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cocis.2005.11.001. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000239082800009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barekatain, R., P. V. Chrystal, G. S. Howarth, C. J. Mclaughlan, S. Gilani, and G. S. Nattrass. 2019. “Performance, Intestinal Permeability, and Gene Expression of Selected Tight Junction Proteins in Broiler Chickens Fed Reduced Protein Diets Supplemented with Arginine, Glutamine, and Glycine Subjected to a Leaky Gut Model.” Poultry Science 98 (12): 6761–6771. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pez393. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31328774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bregendahl, K., J. L. Sell, and D. R. Zimmerman. 2002. “Effect of Low-Protein Diets on Growth Performance and Body Composition of Broiler Chicks.” Poultry Science 81:12.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cersosimo, E., P. E. Williams, P. M. Radosevich, B. T. Hoxworth, W. W. Lacy, and N. N. Abumrad. 1986. “Role of Glutamine in Adaptations in Nitrogen Metabolism During Fasting.” The American Journal of Physiology 250 (6 Pt 1): E622–8. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1986.250.6.E622.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang, T. W., and A. L. Goldberg. 1978. “The Origin of Alanine Produced in Skeletal Muscle.” Journal of Biological Chemistry 253 (10): 3677–3684. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/649595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chrystal, P. V., S. Greenhalgh, B. V. Mcinerney, L. R. Mcquade, Y. Akter, J. C. D. Dorigam, P. H. Selle, and S. Y. Liu. 2021. “Maize-Based Diets are More Conducive to Crude Protein Reductions Than Wheat-Based Diets for Broiler Chickens.” Animal Feed Science and Technology 275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.114867. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000641584700006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chrystal, P. V., A. F. Moss, A. Khoddami, V. D. Naranjo, P. H. Selle, and S. Y. Liu. 2020. “Effects of Reduced Crude Protein Levels, Dietary Electrolyte Balance, and Energy Density on the Performance of Broiler Chickens Offered Maize-Based Diets with Evaluations of Starch, Protein, and Amino Acid Metabolism.” Poultry Science 99 (3): 1421–1431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2019.10.060 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32115029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COBB. 2018. Cobb 500 Broiler Performance and Nutrition Supplement. Accessed January 9, 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Corzo, A., C. A. Fritts, M. T. Kidd, and B. Kerr. 2005. “Response of Broiler Chicks to Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acid Supplementation of Low Crude Protein Diets.” Animal Feed Science and Technology 118 (3–4): 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2004.11.007. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000226784900012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dean, D. W., T. D. Bidner, and L. L. Southern. 2006. “Glycine Supplementation to Low Protein, Amino Acid-Supplemented Diets Supports Optimal Performance of Broiler Chicks.” Poultry Science 85 (2): 288–296. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/85.2.288 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16523629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heger, J. 2003. “Essential to Non-Essential Amino Acid Ratios.” In Amino Acids in Animal Nutrition, edited by J. P. F. D’Mello, 103–124. Oxon, UK: CABI International.
   Google Scholar
• Hidalgo, M. A., W. A. Dozier, A. J. Davis, and R. W. Gordon. 2004. “Live Performance and Meat Yield Responses of Broilers to Progressive Concentrations of Dietary Energy Maintained at a Constant Metabolizable Energy-to-Crude Protein Ratio.” The Journal of Applied Poultry Research 13 (2): 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1093/japr/13.2.319. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000232144100022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilliar, M., G. Hargreave, C. K. Girish, R. Barekatain, S. B. Wu, and R. A. Swick. 2020. “Using Crystalline Amino Acids to Supplement Broiler Chicken Requirements in Reduced Protein Diets.” Poultry Science 99 (3): 1551–1563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2019.12.005. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000525955400034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann, P., W. Siegert, H. Ahmadi, J. Krieg, M. Novotny, V. D. Naranjo, and M. Rodehutscord. 2020. “Interactive Effects of Glycine Equivalent, Cysteine, and Choline on Growth Performance, Nitrogen Excretion Characteristics, and Plasma Metabolites of Broiler Chickens Using Neural Networks Optimized with Genetic Algorithms.” Animals 10 (8). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081392.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann, P., W. Siegert, A. Kenéz, V. D. Naranjo, and M. Rodehutscord. 2019. “Very Low Crude Protein and Varying Glycine Concentrations in the Diet Affect Growth Performance, Characteristics of Nitrogen Excretion, and the Blood Metabolome of Broiler Chickens.” The Journal of Nutrition 149:11. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz022. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000567298500001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, X., Y. Wang, A. Sheikhahmadi, X. Li, J. Buyse, H. Lin, and Z. Song. 2019. “Effects of Dietary Energy Level on Appetite and Central Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) in Broilers.” Journal of Animal Science 97 (11): 4488–4495. https://doi.org/10.1093/jas/skz312. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31586423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaewtapee, C., K. Burbach, G. Tomforde, T. Hartinger, A. Camarinha-Silva, S. Heinritz, J. Seifert, M. Wiltafsky, R. Mosenthin, and P. Rosenfelder-Kuon. 2017. “Effect of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis Supplementation in Diets with Low- and High-Protein Content on Ileal Crude Protein and Amino Acid Digestibility and Intestinal Microbiota Composition of Growing Pigs.” Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 8:37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-017-0168-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamran, Z., M. Sarwar, M. Nisa, M. A. Nadeem, S. Mahmood, M. E. Babar, and S. Ahmed. 2008. “Effect of Low-Protein Diets Having Constant Energy-To-Protein Ratio on Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Broiler Chickens from One to Thirty-Five Days of Age.” Poultry Science 87:7. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2007-00180.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidd, M. T., C. W. Maynard, and G. J. Mullenix. 2021. “Progress of Amino Acid Nutrition for Diet Protein Reduction in Poultry.” Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 12 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-021-00568-0. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000636585400001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, D. T., J. T. Lee, C. Ruan, and S. J. Rochell. 2022. “Influence of Increasing Glycine Concentrations in Reduced Crude Protein Diets Fed to Broilers from 0 to 48 Days.” Poultry Science 101 (9): 102038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2022.102038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lilburn, M. S., and S. Loeffler. 2015. “Early Intestinal Growth and Development in Poultry.” Poultry Science 94 (7): 1569–1576. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pev104. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000356536500017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livak, K. J., and T. D. Schmittgen. 2001. “Analysis of Relative Gene Expression Data Using Real-Time Quantitative PCR and the 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) Method.” Methods 25 (4): 402–408. https://doi.org/10.1006/meth.2001.1262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnuson, B., B. Ekim, and D. C. Fingar. 2012. “Regulation and Function of Ribosomal Protein S6 Kinase (S6K) within mTOR signalling Networks.” The Biochemical Journal 441:1–21. https://doi.org/10.1042/Bj20110892. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000298940900001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maia, R. C., L. F. T. Albino, H. S. Rostagno, M. L. Xavier, B. S. Kreuz, R. L. Silva, B. D. Faria, and A. A. Calderano. 2021. “Low Crude Protein Diets for Broiler Chickens Aged 8 to 21 Days Should Have a 50% Essential-to-Total Nitrogen Ratio.” Animal Feed Science and Technology 271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2020.114709. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000612162700015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mithieux, G. 2001. “New Data and Concepts on Glutamine and Glucose Metabolism in the Gut.” Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 4 (4): 267–271. https://doi.org/10.1097/00075197-200107000-00004 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11458019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyajima, N., S. Maruyama, K. Nonomura, and S. Hatakeyama. 2009. “TRIM36 Interacts with the Kinetochore Protein CENP-H and Delays Cell Cycle Progression.” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 381 (3): 383–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.02.059 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19232519.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss, A. F., C. J. Sydenham, A. Khoddami, V. D. Naranjo, S. Y. Liu, and P. H. Selle. 2018. “Dietary Starch Influences Growth Performance, Nutrient Utilisation and Digestive Dynamics of Protein and Amino Acids in Broiler Chickens Offered Low-Protein Diets.” Animal Feed Science and Technology 237:55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2018.01.001. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000429293600007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olukosi, O. A., A. J. Cowieson, and O. Adeola. 2007. “Age-Related Influence of a Cocktail of Xylanase, Amylase, and Protease or Phytase Individually or in Combination in Broilers.” Poultry Science 86 (1): 77–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/86.1.77 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17179419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ospina-Rojas, I. C., A. E. Murakami, C. Eyng, R. V. Nunes, C. R. A. Duarte, and M. D. Vargas. 2012. “Commercially Available Amino Acid Supplementation of Low-Protein Diets for Broiler Chickens with Different Ratios of Digestible Glycine Plus Serine: Lysine.” Poultry Science 91 (12): 3148–3155. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2012-02470. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000311647700020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ospina-Rojas, I. C., A. E. Murakami, C. A. Oliveira, and A. F. Guerra. 2013. “Supplemental Glycine and Threonine Effects on Performance, Intestinal Mucosa Development, and Nutrient Utilization of Growing Broiler Chickens.” Poultry Science 92 (10): 2724–2731. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2013-03171 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24046420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravindran, V., L. I. Hew, G. Ravindran, and W. L. Bryden. 2005. “Apparent Ileal Digestibility of Amino Acids in Dietary Ingredients for Broiler Chickens.” Animal Science 81:13. https://doi.org/10.1079/ASC42240085.
   Google Scholar
• Short, F. J., P. Gorton, J. Wiseman, and K. N. Boorman. 1996. “Determination of Titanium Dioxide Added as an Inert Marker in Chicken Digestibility Studies.” Animal Feed Science and Technology 59:215–221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shoulders, M. D., and R. T. Raines. 2009. “Collagen Structure and Stability.” Annual Review of Biochemistry 78:929–958. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.77.032207.120833. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000268069200033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegert, W., and M. Rodehutscord. 2019. “The Relevance of Glycine and Serine in Poultry Nutrition: A Review.” British Poultry Science 60 (5): 579–588. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2019.1622081. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000472445000001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Souba, W. W., K. Herskowitz, R. M. Salloum, M. K. Chen, and T. R. Austgen. 1990. “Gut Glutamine Metabolism.” JPEN: Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 14 (4 Suppl): 45S–50S. https://doi.org/10.1177/014860719001400403. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2205731.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strifler, P., B. Horvath, N. Such, V. Farkas, L. Wagner, K. Dublecz, and L. Pal. 2023. “Effects of Feeding Low Protein Diets with Different Energy-to-Protein Ratios on Performance, Carcass Characteristics, and Nitrogen Excretion of Broilers.” Animals 13 (9). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13091476. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000986841600001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summers, J. D., J. L. Atkinson, and D. Spratt. 1991. “Supplementation of a Low Protein-Diet in an Attempt to Optimize Egg Mass Output.” Canadian Journal of Animal Science 71 (1): 211–220. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjas91-023. <Go to ISI>://WOS:A1991FK36500023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, L., and N. P. Curthoys. 2004. “Glutamine Metabolism: Role in Acid-Base Balance*.” Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education 32 (5): 291–304. https://doi.org/10.1002/bmb.2004.494032050388 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21706743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Milgen, J. 2021. “The Role of Energy, Serine, Glycine, and 1-Carbon Units in the Cost of Nitrogen Excretion in Mammals and Birds.” Animal 15 (5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2021.100213. <Go to ISI>://WOS:000663350400011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, W., Z. Wu, Z. Dai, Y. Yang, J. Wang, and G. Wu. 2013. “Glycine Metabolism in Animals and Humans: Implications for Nutrition and Health.” Amino Acids 45 (3): 463–477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-013-1493-1 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23615880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar