EU arms collaboration, procurement, and offsets: the impact of the war in Ukraine

References

• Adamowski, Jaroslaw. 2022. “Bulgarian Parliament Votes to Buy F-16s Under $1.3 Billion Deal.” Defense News. November 4. https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2022/11/04/bulgarian-parliament-votes-to-buy-f-16s-under-13-billion-deal/.
   Google Scholar
• Babcock. 2022. Babcock Selected as the Platform Design Provider and Technology Partner for Poland’s New Frigate Programme. March 4. https://www.babcockinternational.com/news/babcock-selected-as-the-platform-design-provider-and-technology-partner-for-polands-new-frigate-programme/.
   Google Scholar
• BAE Systems. 2022. Slovakia Selects BAE Systems CV90 for New Combat Vehicle. June 28. https://www.baesystems.com/en/article/slovakia-selects-bae-systems-cv90-for-new-combat-vehicle.
   Google Scholar
• BAE Systems. 2023. Czech Republic Awards BAE Systems $2.2 Billion Contract to Acquire 246 CV90s. May 24. https://www.baesystems.com/en/article/czech-republic-awards-bae-systems-contract-to-acquire-246-cv90s.
   Google Scholar
• Béraud-Sudreau, Lucie, and Bastian Giegerich. 2018. “NATO Defence Spending and European Threat Perceptions.” Survival 60 (4): 53–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2018.1495429.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Béraud-Sudreau, Lucie, and Alice Pannier. 2021. “An ‘Improbable Paris-Berlin-Commission Triangle’: Usages of Europe and the Revival of EU Defense Cooperation After 2016.” Journal of European Integration 43 (3): 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2020.1740215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Béraud-Sudreau, Lucie, and Lorenzo Scarazzato. 2023. “Mapping the European Defence Industry in an Era of Strategic Flux.” Brussels School of Governance, Centre for Security, Diplomacy and Strategy, CSDS in Depth, July. https://brussels-school.be/sites/default/files/In-Depth-Beyond-Fragmentation.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Biscop, Sven. 2020. “European Defence and PESCO: Don’t Waste the Chance,” EUIDEA policy papers, no. 1. May 5. https://www.iai.it/sites/default/files/euidea_pp_1.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Blockmans, Steven, and Dylan Macchiarini Crosson. 2022. “PESCO: A Formula for Positive Integration in European Defence.” In The Routledge Handbook of Differentiation in the European Union. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429054136.
   Google Scholar
• Calcara, Antonio. 2020. European Defence Decision-Making : Dilemmas of Collaborative Arms Procurement. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367853792.
   Google Scholar
• Calcara, Antonio, Andrea Gilli, and Mauro Gilli. 2023. “Short-term Readiness, Long-Term Innovation: The European Defence Industry in Turbulent Times.” Defence Studies 23 (4): 626–643. https://doi.org/10.1080/14702436.2023.2277439.
   Google Scholar
• Camargos Pereira, Flavia. 2023. “Slovak Industry Lands Offset Work Under CV90 Armoured Vehicle Deal.” Shepard, Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/landwarfareintl/slovakia-will-nationally-manufacture-cv90-turrets/.
   Google Scholar
• Camporini, Vincenzo, Michele Nones, and Alessandro Marrone. 2022. “La guerra russo-ucraina e l’Europa della difesa.” Affari Internazionali - Politica ed economia estera (blog). Accessed March 9, 2022. https://www.affarinternazionali.it/guerra-russo-ucraina-europa-difesa/.
   Google Scholar
• Chappell, Laura, Theofanis Exadaktylos, and Petar Petrov. 2020. “A More Capable EU? Assessing the Role of the EU’s Institutions in Defence Capability Development.” Journal of European Integration 42 (4): 583–600. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2019.1666115.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chovančík, Martin, and Oldřich Krpec. 2023. “Cloaked Disintegration – Ukraine War and European Defence-Industrial Co-Operation in Central and Eastern Europe.” Defense & Security Analysis 39 (3): 369–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/14751798.2023.2204596.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Countertrade & Offset. 2022a. “Poland amends procurement law, paves way for more offsets under article 346,” 40, no. 5, 1.
   Google Scholar
• Countertrade & Offset. 2022b. “Portugal drifts toward offsets,” 40, no. 10, 4.
   Google Scholar
• Countertrade & Offset. 2023a. “Czech Republic's procurement of F-35s focuses on industrial cooperation” 41, no. 19, 5.
   Google Scholar
• Countertrade & Offset. 2023b. “Czech Aerospace firms and Pratt and Whitney ink MoU” 41, no. 17, 8.
   Google Scholar
• Dedonder, Ludivine. 2023. LinkedIn post. Accessed December 8, 2023. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/dedonderludivine_la-belgique-sengage-dans-le-futur-de-la-activity-7133096690026213377-Ttti/?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_desktop.
   Google Scholar
• Defensie, Ministerie van. 2023. Nederland Zoekt Aansluiting bij Internationale Organisatie OCCAR - Nieuwsbericht - Defensie.nl. November 23. https://www.defensie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/11/23/nederland-zoekt-aansluiting-bij-internationale-organisatie-occar.
   Google Scholar
• de Jong, Moniek. 2024. “Wind of Change: The Impact of REPowerEU Policy Reforms on gas Security.” Policy Studies, https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2024.2302442.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elbit Systems. 2023a. CN ROMARM S.A and Elbit Systems to Cooperate on the Establishment of an Artillery Center of Excellence in Romania. November 29. https://elbitsystems.com/pr-new/cn-romarm-s-a-and-elbit-systems-to-cooperate-on-the-establishment-of-an-artillery-center-of-excellence-in-romania/.
   Google Scholar
• Elbit Systems. 2023b. KNDS, Elbit Systems Sign Teaming Agreement for EuroPULS at DSEI London. September 14. https://elbitsystems.com/pr-new/knds-elbit-systems-sign-teaming-agreement-for-europuls-at-dsei-london/.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2022. EU to Reinforce the European Defence Industry. July 19. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_22_4491.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. n.d. The European Defence Fund (EDF). Accessed November 21, 2022. https://defence-industry-space.ec.europa.eu/eu-defence-industry/european-defence-fund-edf_en.
   Google Scholar
• European Council. 2017. Defence Cooperation: Council Establishes Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO), with 25 Member States Participating. December 11. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/12/11/defence-cooperation-pesco-25-member-states-participating/.
   Google Scholar
• European Council. 2020. EU Defence Cooperation: Council Sets Conditions for Third-State Participation in PESCO Projects. November 5. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2020/11/05/eu-defence-cooperation-council-sets-conditions-for-third-state-participation-in-pesco-projects/.
   Google Scholar
• European Council. 2021a. EU Defence Cooperation: Council Launches the 4th Wave of New PESCO Projects. November 16. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/11/16/eu-defence-cooperation-council-launches-the-4th-wave-of-new-pesco-projects/.
   Google Scholar
• European Council. 2021b. Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO)'s projects - Overview. Accessed February 16, 2023. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/53013/20211115-pesco-projects-with-description.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• European Council. 2022a. A Strategic Compass for a Stronger EU Security and Defence in the next Decade. March 21. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/03/21/a-strategic-compass-for-a-stronger-eu-security-and-defence-in-the-next-decade/.
   Google Scholar
• European Council. 2022b. Council Recommendation of 14 November 2022 Assessing the Progress Made by the Participating Member States to Fulfil Commitments Undertaken in the Framework of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) 2022/C 433/02. 2022. Accessed December 21, 2023. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:JOC_2022_433_R_0002.
   Google Scholar
• European Council. 2023. EU Defence Cooperation: Council Welcomes Denmark into PESCO and Launches the 5th Wave of New PESCO Projects. May 23. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/05/23/eu-defence-cooperation-council-welcomes-denmark-into-pesco-and-launches-the-5th-wave-of-new-pesco-projects/.
   Google Scholar
• European Defence Agency. 2022. 2022 Coordinated Annual Review on Defence Report. November. https://eda.europa.eu/docs/default-source/eda-publications/2022-card-report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• European Parliament. 2020. Directorate General for Parliamentary Research Services. EU Defence Package: Defence Procurement and Intra Community Transfers Directives : European Implementation Assessment. LU: Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2861817967.
   Google Scholar
• European Parliament. 2021a. Defence Industry Cooperation in the European Union: Rationale, Initiatives, Achievements, Challenges : In Depth Analysis. LU: Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.286181089.
   Google Scholar
• European Parliament. 2021b. REPORT on the Implementation of Directive 2009/81/EC, Concerning Procurement in the Fields of Defence and Security, and of Directive 2009/43/EC, Concerning the Transfer of Defence-Related Products | A9-0025/2021. March 8. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-9-2021-0025_EN.html.
   Google Scholar
• European Parliament. 2023. European Parliamentary Research Service. European defence industry reinforcement through common procurement act (EDIRPA). https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2023)739294.
   Google Scholar
• Fiott, Daniel. 2023. “In Every Crisis an Opportunity? European Union Integration in Defence and the War on Ukraine.” Journal of European Integration 45 (3): 447–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2023.2183395.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giumelli, Francesco, and Marlene Marx. 2023. “The European Defence Fund Precursor Programmes and the State of the European Market for Defence.” Defence Studies 23 (4): 589–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/14702436.2023.2277440.
   Google Scholar
• Gosselin-Malo, Elisabeth, and Seth Frantzman. 2023. “Israel’s Elbit Looks to Cash in on European Artillery Appetites.” Defense News. May 18. https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2023/05/18/israels-elbit-looks-to-cash-in-on-european-artillery-appetites/.
   Google Scholar
• Gould, Joe. 2022. “US Pledges $391 Million for Euro Allies to Buy American to Backfill Weapons Donations to Ukraine.” Defense News. April 25. https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2022/04/25/us-pledges-391-million-for-euro-allies-to-buy-american-to-backfill-weapons-donations-to-ukraine/.
   Google Scholar
• Håkansson, Calle. 2021. “The European Commission’s New Role in EU Security and Defence Cooperation: The Case of the European Defence Fund.” European Security 30 (4): 589–608. https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2021.1906229.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haroche, Pierre. 2020. “Supranationalism Strikes Back: A Neofunctionalist Account of the European Defence Fund.” Journal of European Public Policy 27 (6): 853–872. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1609570.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jelínková, Marie, Michal Plaček, and František Ochrana. 2023. “The Arrival of Ukrainian Refugees as an Opportunity to Advance Migrant Integration Policy.” Policy Studies, https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2023.2289576.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kft, Webra International. 2018. The Visegrad Group: The Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia | Joint Communiqué of the Visegrad Group Ministers of Defence. Text. (C) 2006-2010, International Visegrad Fund. March 29, 2018. https://www.visegradgroup.eu/calendar/2018/joint-communique-of-the-180329.
   Google Scholar
• Kofroň, Jan, and Jakub Stauber. 2023. “The Impact of the Russo-Ukrainian Conflict on Military Expenditures of European States: Security Alliances or Geography?” Journal of Contemporary European Studies 31 (1): 151–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2021.1958201.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonardo. 2023a. KNDS and LEONARDO Form Strategic Alliance. December 13. https://www.leonardo.com/en/press-release-detail/-/detail/13.12.23.
   Google Scholar
• Leonardo. 2023b. Leonardo: PZL-Świdnik Awarded PLN 8.25 Billion Gross (EUR 1.76 Billion) Contract for the Supply of 32 AW149 Multirole Helicopters for the Polish Armed Forces. May 25. https://www.leonardo.com/en/press-release-detail/-/detail/01-07-2022-ldo-pzl-%25C5%259Awidnik-awarded-pln-8.25-billion-gross-eur-1.76-billion-contract-for-the-supply-of-32-aw149-multirole-helicopters-for-the-polish-armed-forces.
   Google Scholar
• Li-Chen, Sim. 2023. “The Arab Gulf States in the Asian Energy Market: Is the Russia-Ukraine war a Game Changer?.” Policy Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2023.2279986.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockheed Martin. 2023. Rheinmetall Defence And Lockheed Martin Will Cooperate On Rocket Artillery System. April 20. https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2023-04-21-rheinmetall-defence-and-lockheed-martin-will-cooperate-on-rocket-artillery-system.
   Google Scholar
• Mader, Matthias. 2024. “Increased Support for Collective Defence in Times of Threat: European Public Opinion Before and After Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine.” Policy Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2024.2302441.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marrone, Alessandro, and Ester Sabatino eds. 2020. “Main Battle Tanks, Europe and the Implications for Italy.” IAI Istituto Affari Internazionali. April 16. https://www.iai.it/en/pubblicazioni/main-battle-tanks-europe-and-implications-italy.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, Tim. 2023. “Belgium to Join Europe’s FCAS Next-gen Fighter Program in June 2025.” Breaking Defense. November 27. https://breakingdefense.com/2023/11/belgium-to-join-europes-fcas-program-in-june-2025/.
   Google Scholar
• Matthews, Ron, and Jonata Anicetti. 2021. “Offset in a Post-Brexit World.” The RUSI Journal 166 (5): 50–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2021.2017592.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maulny, Jean-Pierre. 2023. “The Impact of the war in Ukraine on the European Defence Market”. Institute des Relations Internationales et Stratégiques (IRIS), September. https://www.iris-france.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/19_ProgEuropeIndusDef_JPMaulny.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Mawdsley, Jocelyn. 2008. “European Union Armaments Policy: Options for Small States?” European Security 17 (2-3): 367–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/09662830802525923.
   Google Scholar
• McKinsey. 2022. Invasion of Ukraine: Implications for European Defense Spending. December 19. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/invasion-of-ukraine-implications-for-european-defense-spending.
   Google Scholar
• NATO. 2024. NATO to buy 1,000 Patriot Missiles to Enhance Allies’ air Defences. January 3, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_221626.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Nikolov, Krassen. 2022. “Bulgaria’s Radev Urges Lockheed Martin to Cooperate, Transfer Tech After F-16 Deal.” Euractiv, December 14. https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/bulgarias-radev-urges-lockheed-martin-to-cooperate-transfer-tech-after-f-16-deal/.
   Google Scholar
• OCCAR. n.d. History. Accessed November 2, 2022. http://www.occar.int/history.
   Google Scholar
• OCCAR. n.d. MALE RPAS. Accessed December 8, 2023. https://www.occar.int/programmes/male-rpas.
   Google Scholar
• OCCAR. n.d. Programmes. Accessed December 8, 2023. https://www.occar.int/our-work-programmes.
   Google Scholar
• O'Shea, Paul, and Sebastian Maslow. 2024. “Rethinking Change in Japan’s Security Policy: Punctuated Equilibrium Theory and Japan’s Response to the Russian Invasion of Ukraine.” Policy Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2024.2309218.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patria. 2022. Slovakia and Finland with Patria Signed an Agreement on Patria AMVxp 8 ( 8 Vehicles. August 30. https://www.patriagroup.com/newsroom/news/2022/slovakia-and-finland-with-patria-signed-an-agreement-on-patria-amvxp-8 ( 8-vehicles.
   Google Scholar
• Perry, Dominic. 2022. “Lockheed Works to Progress German F-35 Deal.” Flight Global. June 22. https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/lockheed-works-to-progress-german-f-35-deal/149100.article.
   Google Scholar
• Pugnet, Aurelie. 2023a. “EU’s Flagship Defence Cooperation PESCO Struggles to Show Life.” 2023. www.Euractiv.Com. May 19. https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/eus-flagship-defence-cooperation-pesco-struggles-to-show-life/.
   Google Scholar
• Pugnet, Aurelie. 2023b. “EU Executive Threatens Withdrawal of €500 m Arms Procurement Fund Proposal.” www.Euractiv.Com. March 27. https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/eu-executive-threatens-withdrawal-of-e500m-arms-procurement-fund-proposal/.
   Google Scholar
• Pugnet, Aurelie. 2023c. “European Commission to Repurpose €500 Million Joint Arms Procurement Fund.” 2023. www.Euractiv.Com. April 19. https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/european-commission-to-repurpose-e500-million-joint-arms-procurement-fund/.
   Google Scholar
• Reuters. 2022. “Germany to Buy 35 Lockheed F-35 Fighter Jets from U.S. Amid Ukraine Crisis.” Reuters, March 14, sec. Europe. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/germany-decides-principle-buy-f-35-fighter-jet-government-source-2022-03-14/.
   Google Scholar
• Rheinmetall. 2023. Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman Sign Letter of Intent with Rheinmetall to Manufacture F-35 Center Fuselages. February 17. https://www.rheinmetall.com/en/media/news-watch/news/2023/jan-mar/2023-02-17_lockheed-martin-and-northrop-grumman-sign-letter-of-intent-with-rheinmetall-to-manufacture-f-35-center-fuselages.
   Google Scholar
• Sabatino, Ester. 2022. “The European Defence Fund: A Step Towards a Single Market for Defence?” Journal of European Integration 44 (1): 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2021.2011264.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoeni, Daniel. 2015. “Defense Offsets and Public Policy: Beyond Economic Efficiency.” In SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 2666754. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2666754.
   Google Scholar
• Seselgyte, Margarita. 2019. “Armament and Transatlantic Relationships: The Baltic States Perspective | IRIS.” Accessed May 22, 2023. https://www.iris-france.org/notes/armament-and-transatlantic-relationships-the-baltic-states-perspective/.
   Google Scholar
• SIPRI. n.d. “SIPRI Arms Transfers Database | SIPRI.” Accessed December 21, 2023. https://sipri.org/databases/armstransfers.
   Google Scholar
• Sprenger, Sebastian, Vivienne Machi, Andrew Chuter, and Jaroslaw Adamowski. 2023. “Europe’s PowerPoint Panzer: Can Berlin and Paris Pull off a New Tank?” Defense News. September 7. https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2023/09/07/europes-powerpoint-panzer-can-berlin-and-paris-pull-off-a-new-tank/.
   Google Scholar
• Struys, Wally. 2004. “The Future of the Defence Firm in Small and Medium Countries.” Defence and Peace Economics 15 (6): 551–564. https://doi.org/10.1080/1024269042000246648.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UK Gov. 2022. PM Announces New International Coalition to Develop the next Generation of Combat Aircraft. December 9. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/pm-announces-new-international-coalition-to-develop-the-next-generation-of-combat-aircraft.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of State. 2022. Secretary Blinken and Secretary Austin’s Travel to Ukraine. November 18. https://www.state.gov/secretary-blinken-and-secretary-austins-travel-to-ukraine/.
   Google Scholar
• “War in Ukraine”. n.d. Global Conflict Tracker. Accessed May 22, 2023. https://cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-ukraine.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, Moritz, and Michael Blauberger. 2016. “Judicialized Law-Making and Opportunistic Enforcement: Explaining the EU's Challenge of National Defence Offsets.” JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 54 (2): 444–462. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12290.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar