2,147
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
SHORT COMMUNICATION

Tularemia – a re-emerging disease with growing concern

, , , , , , , , , , , & show all
Pages 1-16 | Received 21 Jun 2023, Accepted 25 Oct 2023, Published online: 18 Nov 2023

References

  • Alharbi A, Rabadi SM, Alqahtani M, Marghani D, Worden M, Ma Z, Malik M, Bakshi CS. 2019. Role of peroxiredoxin of the AhpC/TSA family in antioxidant defence mechanisms of F. tularensis. PLoS One. 14(3):e0213699. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213699.
  • Ali AM, Amin MN, Arif S. 2019. First case report of post-operative infection due to Francisella tularensis after cardiac surgery. Access Microbiol. 1(8):e000035. doi: 10.1099/acmi.0.000035.
  • American Veterinary Medical Association. 2003. Tularemia facts. https://www.avma.org/tularemia-facts.
  • Appelt S, Faber M, Koppen K, Jacob D, Grunow R, Heuner K. 2020. Francisella tularensis subspecies holarctica and tularemia in Germany. Microorganisms. 8(9):1448. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms8091448.
  • Ariza-Miguel J, Johansson A, Fernandez-Natal MI, Martinez-Nistal C, Orduna A, Rodriguez-Ferri EF, Hernandez M, Rodriguez-Lazaro D. 2014. Molecular investigation of tularemia outbreaks, Spain, 1997–2008. Emerg Infect Dis. 20(5):754–761. doi: 10.3201/eid2005.130654.
  • Auwaerter PG, Penn RL. 2020. Francisella tularensis (Tularemia). In: Bennet JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ, editors. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; p. 2759.
  • Bahuaud O, Le Brun C, Lemaignen A. 2021. Host immunity and F. tularensis: a review of tularemia in immunocompromised patients. Microorganisms. 9(12):2539. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms9122539.
  • Banik S, Mansour AA, Suresh RV, Wykoff-Clary S, Malik M, McCormick AA, Bakshi CS. 2015. Development of a multivalent subunit vaccine against tularemia using Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) based delivery system. PLoS One. 10(6):e0130858. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130858.
  • Barry EM, Cole LE, Santiago AE. 2009. Vaccines against tularemia. Hum Vaccin. 5(12):832–838. doi: 10.4161/hv.10297.
  • Bell JF, Stewart SJ. 1983. Quantum differences in oral susceptibility of voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus, to virulent Francisella tularensis type B, in drinking water: implications to epidemiology. Ecol Dis. 2:151–155.
  • Bishop A, Wang HH, Donaldson TG, Brockinton EE, Kothapalli E, Clark S, Vishwanath T, Canales T, Sreekumar K, Grant WE, et al. 2023. Tularemia cases increase in the USA from 2011 through 2019. Curr Res Parasitol Vector Borne Dis. 3:100116. doi: 10.1016/j.crpvbd.2023.100116.
  • Boeckel GR, Adiprasito JB, Froböse NJ, Schaumburg F, Vollenberg R, Tepasse PR. 2022. Tularemia presenting solely with cervical lymphadenopathy and fever. Diagnostics (Basel). 12(8):2000. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics12082000.
  • Bystrom M, Bocher S, Magnusson A, Prag J, Johansson A. 2005. Tularemia in Denmark: identification of a F. tularensis subsp. holarctica strain by real-time PCR and high-resolution typing by multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 43(10):5355–5358. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.10.5355-5358.2005.
  • Carvalho CL, Lopes de Carvalho I, Zé-Zé L, Núncio MS, Duarte EL. 2014. Tularemia: a challenging zoonosis. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 37(2):85–96. doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2014.01.002.
  • Carvalho CL, Nuncio MS, Morais DJ. 2009. Tularemia. Acta Med Port. 3:281–290.
  • CDC USA website. 2023. Tularemia. https://www.cdc.gov/tularemia/index.html
  • Celebi S, Hacimustafaoglu M, Gedikoglu S. 2008. Tularemia in children. Indian J Pediatr. 75(11):1129–1132. doi: 10.1007/s12098-008-0180-9.
  • Celli J, Zahrt TC. 2013. Mechanisms of Francisella tularensis intracellular pathogenesis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 3(4):a010314–a010314. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a010314.
  • CFSPH Technical Fact Sheets. XXXX. Tularemia. http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/ DiseaseInfo/.
  • Champion MD, Zeng Q, Nix EB, Nano FE, Keim P, Kodira CD, Borowsky M, Young S, Koehrsen M, Engels R, et al. 2009. Comparative genomic characterization of Francisella tularensis strains belonging to low and high virulence subspecies. PLoS Pathog. 5(5):e1000459. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000459.
  • Dennis DT, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, Fine AD, Friedlander AM, Hauer J, Layton M, et al. 2001. Tularemia as a biological weapon-medical and public health management. J Am Med Assoc. 285(21):2763–2773. doi: 10.1001/jama.285.21.2763.
  • Dryselius R, Hjertqvist M, Mäkitalo S, Lindblom A, Lilja T, Eklöf D, Lindström A. 2019. Large outbreak of tularaemia, central Sweden, July to September 2019. Euro Surveill. 24(42):1900603.
  • Eden JS, Rose K, Ng J, Shi M, Wang Q, Sintchenko V, Holmes EC. 2017. F. tularensis ssp. holarctica in ringtail possums, Australia. Emerg Infect Dis. 23(7):1198–1201. doi: 10.3201/eid2307.161863.
  • Eliasson H, Broman T, Forsman M, Back E. 2006. Tularemia: current epidemiology and disease management. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 20(2):289–311, ix. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2006.03.002.
  • Ellis J, Oyston PCF, Green M, Titball RW. 2002. Tularemia. Clin Microbiol Rev. 15(4):631–646. doi: 10.1128/CMR.15.4.631-646.2002.
  • Faber M, Heuner K, Jacob D, Grunow R. 2018. Tularemia in Germany-A re-emerging zoonosis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 8:40. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00040.
  • Feldman KA, Enscore RE, Lathrop SL, Matyas BT, McGuill M, Schriefer ME, Stiles-Enos D, Dennis DT, Petersen LR, Hayes EB. 2001. An outbreak of primary pneumonic tularemia on Martha’s Vineyard. N Engl J Med. 345(22):1601–1606. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa011374.
  • Fey PD, Dempsey MM, Olson ME, Chrustowski MS, Engle JL, Jay JJ, Dobson ME, Kalasinsky KS, Shea AA, Iwen PC, et al. 2007. Molecular analysis of F. tularensis subspecies tularensis and holarctica. Am J Clin Pathol. 128(6):926–935. doi: 10.1309/JN3NTHK4VVWKJT4A.
  • Fooladfar Z, Moradi F. 2023. Francisella and tularemia in western Asia, Iran: a systematic review. New Microbes New Infect. doi: 10.1016/j.nmni.2023.101092.
  • Foley JE, Nieto NC. 2010. Tularemia. Vet Microbiol. 140:332-338.Francis E. 1925. Tularemia. J Am Med Assoc. 84:1243–1250.
  • Geier H, Celli J. 2011. Phagocytic receptors dictate phagosomal escape and intracellular proliferation of Francisella tularensis. Infect Immun. 79(6):2204–2214. doi: 10.1128/IAI.01382-10.
  • Geyik MF, Akalın HDT. 2009. Francisella tularensis ve Tularemi. Gürcan Ş, editor. İstanbul: Nobel Tıp Kitabevleri; p. 99–106.
  • Gliatto JM, Rae JF, McDonough PL, Dasbach JJ. 1994. Feline tularemia on Nantucket Island, Massachusetts. J Vet Diagn Invest. 6(1):102–105. doi: 10.1177/104063879400600120.
  • Golovliov I, Bäckman S, Granberg M, Salomonsson E, Lundmark E, Näslund J, Busch JD, Birdsell D, Sahl JW, Wagner DM, et al. 2021. Long-term survival of virulent tularemia pathogens outside a host in conditions that mimic natural aquatic environments. Appl Environ Microbiol. 87(6):e02713-20. doi: 10.1128/AEM.02713-20.
  • Gozel MG, Engin A, Altuntas EE, Salk I, Kaya A, Celik C, Dokmetas I, Bakir M, Elaldi N. 2014. Evaluation of clinical and laboratory findings of pediatric and adult patients with oro-pharyngeal tularemia in Turkey: a combination of surgical drainage and antibiotic therapy increases treatment success. Jpn J Infect Dis. 67(4):295–299. doi: 10.7883/yoken.67.295.
  • Greene C, DeBay B. 2006. Tularemia. In: Greene C, editor. Infectious diseases of the dog and cat. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier; p. 446–451.
  • Gürcan S. 2014. Epidemiology of tularemia. Balkan Med J. 31(1):3–10. doi: 10.5152/balkanmedj.2014.13117.
  • Hayoun MA, King KC. 2022. Biologic warfare agent toxicity. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan–. PMID: 28722971.
  • Hennebique A, Boisset S, Maurin M. 2019. Tularemia as a waterborne disease: a review. Emerg Microbes Infect. 8(1):1027–1042. doi: 10.1080/22221751.2019.163873.
  • Hopla CE, Hopla AK. 1994. Tularemia. In: Beran GW, Steele JH, editors. Handbook of zoonoses. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc; p. 113–126. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/tularemia/tularemia-in-animals.
  • Huang S, Kaptur B, Manu J, Woldegabriel E. 2022. An unusual case of Francisella tularensis. Case Rep Infect Dis. 2022:7250294. doi: 10.1155/2022/7250294.
  • Huntley JF, Conley PG, Rasko DA, Hagman KE, Apicella MA, Norgard MV. 2008. Native outer membrane proteins protect mice against pulmonary challenge with virulent type A Francisella tularensis. Infect Immun. 76(8):3664–3671. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00374-08.
  • Imbimbo C, Karrer U, Wittwer M, Buettcher M. 2020. Tularemia in children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 39(12):e435–e438. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000002932.
  • Janse I, van der Plaats RQJ, de Roda Husman AM, van Passel MWJ. 2018. Environmental surveillance of zoonotic F. tularensis in the Netherlands. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 8:140. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00140.
  • Jia Q, Horwitz MA. 2018. Live attenuated tularemia vaccines for protection against respiratory challenge with virulent F. tularensis subsp. tularensis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 8:154. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00154.
  • Jia Q, Lee B-Y, Clemens DL, Bowen RA, Horwitz MA. 2009. Recombinant attenuated Listeria monocytogenes vaccine expressing Francisella tularensis IglC induces protection in mice against aerosolized type A F. tularensis vaccine. Vaccine. 27(8):1216–1229. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.12.014.
  • Johansson A, Ibrahim A, Goransson I, Eriksson U, Gurycova D, Clarridge J, Sjöstedt A. 2000. Evaluation of PCR-based methods for discrimination of Francisella species and subspecies and development of a specific PCR that distinguishes the two major subspecies of F. tularensis. J Clin Microbiol. 38(11):4180–4185. doi: 10.1128/JCM.38.11.4180-4185.2000.
  • Johansson A, Larkeryd A, Widerstrom M, Mortberg S, Myrtannas K, Ohrman C, Birdsell D, Keim P, Wagner DM, Forsman M, et al. 2014. An outbreak of respiratory tularemia caused by diverse clones of Francisella tularensis. Clin Infect Dis. 59(11):1546–1553. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu621.
  • Kaya E, Üçer H. 2022. Tularemia research activity: a bibliometric analysis between 1980 and 2020. Infection. 50(6):1507–1515. doi: 10.1007/s15010-022-01837-4.
  • Kelson M, Burnett J, Girgis S, Bakr M. 2022. Tularemia: the resurgence of a diagnostic challenge and clinical dilemma in the United States. Cureus. 14(7):e27363. doi: 10.7759/cureus.27363.
  • Kervyn A, Le Guern A, Gillard M, Bataille M, Modiano P. 2019. Un cas de tularémie [Tularemia: a case report]. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 146(2):131–134. doi: 10.1016/j.annder.2018.11.004.
  • Kilic S. 2010. General overview of F. tularensis and the epidemiology of tularemia in Turkey. Flora. 15:37–58.
  • Kleo K, Schafer D, Klar S, Jacob D, Grunow R, Lisdat F. 2012. Immunodetection of inactivated F. tularensis bacteria by using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring. Anal Bioanal Chem. 404(3):843–851. doi: 10.1007/s00216-012-6172-7.
  • Kravdal A, Stubhaug O, Piekuviene R, Sandnes A. 2021. Pulmonary tularaemia. Tidsskr nor Laegeforen. 141(11). doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.21.0245.
  • Kugeler KJ, Mead PS, Janusz AM, Staples JE, Kubota KA, Chalcraft LG, Petersen JM. 2009. Molecular epidemiology of F. tularensis in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 48(7):863–870. doi: 10.1086/597261.
  • Kutlu M, Ergin Ç, Karadenizli A, Sayın Kutlu S. 2021. An outbreak of tularemia in southwestern Turkey. J Infect Dev Ctries. 15(6):812–817. doi: 10.3855/jidc.12312.
  • Kwit NA, Schwartz A, Kugeler KJ, Mead PS, Nelson CA. 2019. Human tularaemia associated with exposure to domestic dogs - United States, 2006-2016. Zoonoses Public Health. 66(4):417–421. doi: 10.1111/zph.12552.
  • Larson MA, Sayood K, Bartling AM, Meyer JR, Starr C, Baldwin J, Dempsey MP. 2020. Differentiation of F. tularensis subspecies and subtypes. J Clin Microbiol. 58(4):e01495. doi: 10.1128/JCM.01495-19.
  • Larsson P, Svensson K, Karlsson L, Guala D, Granberg M, Forsman M, Johansson A. 2007. Canonical insertion–deletion markers for rapid DNA typing of F. tularensis. Emerg Infect Dis. 13(11):1725–1732. doi: 10.3201/eid1311.070603.
  • Lindgren H, Sjostedt A. 2016. Gallium potentiates the antibacterial effect of gentamicin against F. tularensis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 60(1):288–295. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01240-15.
  • López-Ramos I, Hernández M, Rodríguez-Lázaro D, Gutiérrez MP, Zarzosa P, Orduña A, March GA. 2020. Quick identification and epidemiological characterization of Francisella tularensis by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. J Microbiol Methods. 177:106055. doi: 10.1016/j.mimet.2020.106055.
  • Lundstrom JO, Andersson AC, Backman S, Schafer ML, Forsman M, Thelaus J. 2011. Transstadial transmission of Francisella tularensis holarctica in mosquitoes, Sweden. Emerg Infect Dis. 17(5):794–799. pmid:21529386. doi: 10.3201/eid1705.100426.
  • Ma Z., Higgs M, Alqahtani M, Bakshi CS, Malik M. 2022. Thioredoxin A1 controls the oxidative stress response of F. tularensis live vaccine strain (LVS). J Bacteriol. doi: 10.1128/jb.00082-22.
  • Ma Z., King K, Alqahtani M, Worden M, Muthuraman P, Cioffi C, Bakshi CS, Malik M. 2019. Stringent response governs the virulence and oxidative stress resistance of F. tularensis. bioRxiv. doi: 10.1101/653790.
  • Magnarelli L, Levy S, Koski R. 2007. Detection of antibodies to F. tularensis in cats. Res Vet Sci. 82(1):22–26. doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2006.06.003.
  • Mandell GL, Bennett JE. 2005. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennet’s principles and practice of infectious diseases, vol. 2. London: Elsevier, Churchill Livingstone; p. 2674–2683.
  • Mansour AA, Banik S, Malik M, McCormick AA, Bakshi CS. 2017. Development of a multimeric subunit vaccine against respiratory tularemia. J Immunol. 198(1_Supplement):147.17–147.17. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.198.Supp.147.17.
  • Maurin M. 2015. F. tularensis as a potential agent of bioterrorism? Expert Rev anti Infect Ther. 13(2):141–144. doi: 10.1586/14787210.2015.986463.
  • Maurin M. 2020. Francisella tularensis, Tularemia and Serological Diagnosis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 10:512090. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.512090.
  • McCaffrey RL, Schwartz JT, Lindemann SR, Moreland JG, Buchan BW, Jones BD, Allen LA. 2010. Multiple mechanisms of NADPH oxidase inhibition by type A and type B Francisella tularensis. J Leukoc Biol. 88(4):791–805. doi: 10.1189/jlb.1209811.
  • Meinkoth KR, Morton RJ, Meinkoth JH. 2004. Naturally occurring tularemia in a dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 225(4):545–547. doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.545.
  • Meric M, Sayan M, Dundar D, Willke A. 2010. Tularaemia outbreaks in Sakarya, Turkey: Case-control and environmental studies. Singapore Med J. 51(8):655–659.
  • Morner T, Addison E. 2008. Tularemia. In: Williams ES, Barker IK, editors. Infectious diseases of wild mammals. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press; p. 303–312. doi: 10.1002/9780470344880.ch18.
  • Nano FE. 1998. Francisella. In: Collier L, Barlows A, Sussman M, editors. Topley and Wilson’s microbiology and microbial infections. 9th ed. London: Arnold; p. 1347–1349.
  • Nirkhiwale SD, Gehlot GS, Bandi AK, Jasani AN. 2015. Isolation of Francisella tularensis from blood culture. Indian J Med Microbiol. 33(2):329–331. doi: 10.4103/0255-0857.154901.
  • Nordstoga A, Handeland K, Johansen TB, Iversen L, Gavier-Widén D, Mattsson R, Wik-Larssen K, Afset JE, Næverdal R, Lund A. 2014. Tularaemia in Norwegian dogs. Vet Microbiol. 173(3–4):318–322. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.06.031.
  • Olin G. 1941. The occurrence and mode of transmission of tularemia in Sweden. Acta Pathol. 29:220–247.
  • Olsufiev NG, Emelyanova OS, Dunayeva TN. 1959. Comparative study of strains of B. tularense in the old and new world and their taxonomy. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol. 3:138–149.
  • Origgi FC, Wu N, Pilo P. 2013. Francisella tularensis infection in a stone marten (Martes foina) without classic pathological lesions consistent with tularemia. J Vet Diagn Invest. 25(4):519–521. doi: 10.1177/1040638713489124.
  • O’Toole D, Williams ES, Woods LW, Mills K, Boerger-Fields A, Montgomery DL, Jaeger P, Edwards WH, Christensen D, Marlatt W. 2008. Tularemia in range sheep: an overlooked syndrome? J Vet Diagn Invest. 20(4):508–513. doi: 10.1177/104063870802000417.
  • Ozanic M, Marecic V, Abu Kwaik Y, Santic M. 2015. The divergent intracellular lifestyle of Francisella tularensis in evolutionarily distinct host cells. PLoS Pathog. 11(12):e1005208. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005208.
  • Ozkaya-Parlakay A, Polat M. 2021. Tularemia in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 40(4):e170. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000003025.
  • Padeshki PI, Ivanov IN, Popov B, Kantardjiev TV. 2010. The role of birds in dissemination of Francisella tularensis: first direct molecular evidence for bird-to-human transmission. Epidemiol Infect. 138(3):376–379. doi: 10.1017/S0950268809990513.
  • Parhizgari N, Piazak N, Mostafavi E. 2021. Vector-borne diseases in Iran: Epidemiology and key challenges. Future Microbiol. 16(1):51–69. doi: 10.2217/fmb-2019-0306.
  • Periasamy S, Avram D, McCabe A, MacNamara KC, Sellati TJ, Harton JA. 2016a. An immature myeloid/myeloid-suppressor cell response associated with necrotizing inflammation mediates lethal pulmonary tularemia. PLoS Pathog. 12(3):e1005517. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005517.
  • Periasamy S, Harton JA. 2018. Interleukin 1α (IL-1α) promotes pathogenic immature myeloid cells and IL-1β favours protective mature myeloid cells during acute lung infection. J Infect Dis. 217(9):1481–1490. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiy049.
  • Periasamy S, Le HT, Duffy EB, Chin H, Harton JA. 2016b. Inflammasome-independent NLRP3 restriction of a protective early neutrophil response to pulmonary tularemia. PLoS Pathog. 12(12):e1006059. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006059.
  • Petersen JM, Mead PS, Schriefer ME. 2009. F. tularensis: an arthropod-borne pathogen. Vet Res. 40(2):7. doi: 10.1051/vetres:2008045.
  • Pilo P. 2018. Phylogenetic lineages of Francisella tularensis in animals. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 8:258. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00258.
  • Rahravani M, Moravedji M, Mostafavi E, Baseri N, Seyfi H, Mohammadi M, Ziaei AH, Mozoun MM, Latifian M, Esmaeili S. 2022. Molecular detection of Francisella tularensis in small ruminants and their ticks in western Iran. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 83:101779. doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2022.101779.
  • Ramakrishnan G. 2017. Iron and virulence in F. tularensis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 7:107. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00107.
  • Rastawicki W, Formińska K, Zasada AA. 2018. Development and evaluation of a latex agglutination test for the identification of Francisella tularensis subspecies pathogenic for human. Pol J Microbiol. 67(2):241–244. doi: 10.21307/pjm-2018-030.
  • Reese SM, Dietrich G, Dolan MC, Sheldon SW, Piesman J, Petersen JM, Eisen RJ. 2010. Transmission dynamics of F. tularensis subspecies and clades by nymphal Dermacentor variabilis (Acari: Ixodidae). Am J Trop Med Hyg. 83(3):645–652. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.10-0127.
  • Reese SM, Petersen JM, Sheldon SW, Dolan MC, Dietrich D, Piesman J, Eisen RJ. 2011. Transmission efficiency of F. tularensis by adult American dog ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). J Med Entomol. 48(4):884–890. doi: 10.1603/me11005.
  • Regoui S, Hennebique A, Girard T, Boisset S, Caspar Y, Maurin M. 2020. Optimized MALDI TOF mass spectrometry identification of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica. Microorganisms. 8(8):1143. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms8081143.
  • Rijks JM, Tulen AD, Notermans DW, Reubsaet FAG, de Vries MC, Koene MGJ, Swaan CM, Maas M. 2022. Tularemia transmission to humans, the Netherlands, 2011-2021. Emerg Infect Dis. 28(4):883–885. doi: 10.3201/eid2804.211913.
  • Rockx-Brouwer D, Chong A, Wehrly TD, Child R, Crane DD, Celli J, Bosio CM. 2012. Low dose vaccination with attenuated F. tularensis strain SchuS4 mutants protects against tularemia independent of the route of vaccination. PLoS One. 7(5):e37752. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037752.
  • Sadiku I, Namani S, Ndrejaj Berisha V, Ponosheci Biçaku A, Hyseni S. 2022. Tularemia in children during the last outbreak in Kosovo. J Infect Dev Ctries. 16(8):1364–1369. doi: 10.3855/jidc.14886.
  • Sahin M. 2009. Francisella tularensis in Vektörleri ve Doğal Rezervuarları. In: Gürcan Ş, editor. Francisella tularensis ve Tularemi. İstanbul: Nobel Tıp Kitabevleri; p. 139–160.
  • Saliba GS, Harmston FC, Diamond BE, Zymet CL, Goldenberg MI, Chin TDY. 1966. An outbreak of human tularemia associated with the American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 15(4):531–538. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1966.15.531.
  • Schulze C, Heuner K, Myrtennäs K, Karlsson E, Jacob D, Kutzer P, Große K, Forsman M, Grunow R. 2016. High and novel genetic diversity of Francisella tularensis in Germany and indication of environmental persistence. Epidemiol Infect. 144(14):3025–3036. doi: 10.1017/S0950268816001175.
  • Seiwald S, Simeon A, Hofer E, Weiss G, Bellmann-Weiler R. 2020. Tularemia goes West: epidemiology of an emerging infection in Austria. Microorganisms. 8(10):1597. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms8101597.
  • Singh A, Periasamy S, Malik M, Bakshi CS, Stephen L, Ault JG, Mannella CA, Sellati TJ. 2017. Necroptotic debris including damaged mitochondria elicits sepsis-like syndrome during late-phase tularemia. Cell Death Discov. 3(1):17056. doi: 10.1038/cddiscovery.2017.56.
  • Sjostedt A. 2007. Tularemia: history, epidemiology, pathogen physiology, and clinical manifestations. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 105:1–29.
  • Snowden J, Simonsen KA. 2023. Tularemia. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; p. 28613655.
  • Splettstoesser WD, Tomaso H, Al Dahouk S, Neubauer H, Schuff-Werner P. 2005. Diagnostic procedures in tularemia with special focus on molecular and immunological techniques. J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health. 52(6):249–261. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0450.2005.00863.x.
  • Stidham RA, Freeman DB, von Tersch RL, Sullivan PJ, Tostenson SD. 2018. Epidemiological review of Francisella tularensis: a case study in the complications of dual diagnoses. PLoS Curr. 10. doi:10.1371/currents.outbreaks.8eb0b55f377abc2d250314bbb8fc9d6d
  • Su J, Yang J, Zhao D, Kawula TH, Banas JA, Jing-Ren Z. 2007. Genome-wide identification of F. tularensis virulence determinants. Infect Immun. 75(6):3089–3101. doi: 10.1128/IAI.01865-06.
  • Sullivan AP, Nicholson C, Bradbury-Squires DJ, King A, Daley P. 2022. Two cases of tularemia in hunters from rural Newfoundland. J Assoc Med Microbiol Infect Dis Can. 7(2):135–139. doi: 10.3138/jammi-2020-0015.
  • Suresh RV, Bradley EW, Higgs M, Russo VC, Alqahtani M, Huang W, Bakshi CS, Malik M. 2021. Nlrp3 increases the host’s susceptibility to tularemia. Front Microbiol. 12:725572. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.725572.
  • Tarnvik A, Berglund L. 2003. Tularemia. Eur Respir J. 21(2):361–373. doi: 10.1183/09031936.03.00088903.
  • Thelaus J, Andersson A, Broman T, Bäckman S, Granberg M, Karlsson L, Kuoppa K, Larsson E, Lundmark E, Lundström JO, et al. 2014. F. tularensis subspecies holarctica occurs in Swedish mosquitoes, persists through the developmental stages of laboratory-infected mosquitoes and is transmissible during blood feeding. Microb Ecol. 67(1):96–107. doi: 10.1007/s00248-013-0285-1.
  • Timofeev V, Titareva G, Bahtejeva I, Kombarova T, Kravchenko T, Mokrievich A, Dyatlov I. 2020. The comparative virulence of Francisella tularensis subsp. mediasiatica for vaccinated laboratory animals. Microorganisms. 8(9):1403. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms8091403.
  • Trevisanato SI. 2004. Did an epidemic of tularemia in Ancient Egypt affect the course of world history? Med Hypotheses. 63(5):905–910. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2004.05.015.
  • Versage JL, Severin D, Chu MC, Petersen JM. 2003. Development of a multi target real-time TaqMan PCR assay for enhanced detection of Francisella tularensis in complex specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 41(12):5492–5499. doi: 10.1128/JCM.41.12.5492-5499.2003.
  • Vogler AJ, Birdsell D, Wagner DM, Keim P. 2009. An optimized, multiplexed multi-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis system for genotyping F. tularensis. Lett Appl Microbiol. 48(1):140–144. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-765X.2008.02484.x.
  • Wagner DM, Birdsell DN, McDonough RF, Nottingham R, Kocos K, Celona K, Özsürekci Y, Öhrman C, Karlsson L, Myrtennäs K, et al. 2022. Genomic characterization of Francisella tularensis and other diverse Francisella species from complex samples. PLoS One. 17(10):e0273273. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273273.
  • Wawszczak M, Banaszczak B, Rastawicki W. 2022. Tularaemia - a diagnostic challenge. Ann Agric Environ Med. 29(1):12–21. doi: 10.26444/aaem/139242.
  • Williams K, Downing R. XXXX. Tularemia in dogs. VCA Animal Hospital. https://vcahospitals.com.
  • Wobeser G, Campbell GD, Dallaire A, McBurney S. 2009. Tularemia, plague, yersiniosis and Tyzzer’s disease in wild rodents and lagomorphs in Canada: a review. Can Vet J. 50:1251–1256.
  • Woods J, Panciera R, Morton R, Lehenbauer TW. 1998. Feline tularemia. Comp Continuing Ed Pract Vet. 20:442–457.
  • World Health Organization (WHO). 2007. WHO guidelines on tularaemia. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
  • Yeni DK, Büyük F, Ashraf A, Shah MS. 2021. Tularemia: a re-emerging tick-borne infectious disease. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 66(1):1–14. doi: 10.1007/s12223-020-00827-z.