References
- Agbebi, M. 2018. China in Africa’s telecom sector: Opportunities for human capital development? A case of Huawei in Nigeria. Human Resource Development International 21 (5):532–51. doi: 10.1080/13678868.2018.1512232.
- Agbebi, M. 2019. Exploring the human capital development dimensions of Chinese investments in Africa: Opportunities, implications and directions for further research. Journal of Asian and African Studies 54 (2):189–210. doi: 10.1177/0021909618801381.
- Agence Ecofin. 2019a. Telecom Egypt signs new deal with Huawei, ZTE and China Telecom. Accessed December 3, 2023. https://www.ecofinagency.com/telecom/0908-40385-telecom-egypt-signs-new-deal-with-huawei-zte-and-china-telecom
- Agence Ecofin. 2019b. L’Algérie abrite la toute première usine africaine de Huawei, opérationnelle depuis le 22 janvier 2019 (Algeria hosts Huawei’s very first African factory, operational since January 22, 2019). Accessed December 3, 2023. https://www.agenceecofin.com/investissement/2801-63550-l-algerie-abrite-la-toute-premiere-usine-africaine-de-huawei-operationnelle-depuis-le-22-janvier-2019
- Aitken, B. J., and A. E. Harrison. 1999. Do domestic firms benefit from direct foreign investment? Evidence from Venezuela. American Economic Review 89 (3):605–18. doi: 10.1257/aer.89.3.605.
- Amendolagine, V., A. Boly, N. D. Coniglio, F. Prota, and A. Seric. 2013. FDI and local linkages in developing countries: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. World Development 50:41–56. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.05.001.
- Amsden, A. H. 2001. The rise of “the rest”: Challenges to the West from late-industrializing economies. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Anand, N. 2015. Leaky states: Water audits, ignorance, and the politics of infrastructure. Public Culture 27 (2):305–30. doi: 10.1215/08992363-2841880.
- APS (Algeria Press Service). 2021. L’augmentation du débit internet minimum réalisée grâce à d’‘enormes’ investissements” (The increase in the minimum internet speed achieved thanks to “huge” investments). Accessed December 3, 2023. https://www.aps.dz/sante-science-technologie/128654-l-augmentation-du-debit-internet-minimum-realisee-grace-a-d-enormes-investissements
- Auffray, C., and X. Fu. 2015. Chinese MNEs and managerial knowledge transfer in Africa: The case of the construction sector in Ghana. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 13 (4):285–310. doi: 10.1080/14765284.2015.1092415.
- Autio, E., M. Kenney, P. Mustar, D. Siegel, and M. Wright. 2014. Entrepreneurial innovation: The importance of context. Research Policy 43 (7):1097–108. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2014.01.015.
- Azmeh, S., C. Foster, and J. Echavarri. 2020. The International Trade Regime and the Quest for free digital trade. International Studies Review 22 (3):671–92. doi: 10.1093/isr/viz033.
- Beattie, A. 2019. July 24. Technology: How the US, EU and China compete to set industry standards. Financial Times, July 24. Accessed December 3, 2023. https://www.ft.com/content/0c91b884-92bb-11e9-aea1-2b1d33ac3271
- Beaudry, P., and P. Francois. 2009. Managerial skills acquisition and the theory of economic development. Review of Economic Studies 77 (1):90–126. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-937X.2009.00571.x.
- Beladi, R. 2023. Algeria.The abolition of the 49/51% law alone is not sufficient to attract significant investment. Accessed December 6, 2023. https://internationalsupermarketnews.com/algeria-the-abolition-of-the-49-51-law-alone-is-not-sufficient-to-attract-significant-investment/.
- Blalock, G., and P. J. Gertler. 2008. Welfare gains from Foreign Direct Investment through technology transfer to local suppliers. Journal of International Economics 74 (2):402–21. doi: 10.1016/j.jinteco.2007.05.011.
- Blomstrom, M., and A. Kokko. 2001. Foreign direct investment and spillovers of technology. International Journal of Technology Management 22 (5/6):435–54. doi: 10.1504/IJTM.2001.002972.
- Blomström, M., and F. Sjöholm. 1999. Technology transfer and spillovers: Does local participation with multinationals matter? European Economic Review 43 (4–6):915–23. doi: 10.1016/S0014-2921(98)00104-4.
- CCCPC (Central Committee of the Communist Part of China). 2016. The 13th five-year plan for economic and social development of the People’s Republic of China (2016-2020). Accessed December 3, 2023. https://en.ndrc.gov.cn/policies/202105/P020210527785800103339.pdf.
- Chen, B.-M. 2021. Digital Leninism: The complex, dangerous relationship between tech giants and the Chinese communist party. Washington, DC: Center for International Private Enterprise. Accessed December 3, 2023. https://www.cipe.org/resources/digital-leninism-the-complex-dangerous-relationship-between-tech-giants-and-the-chinese-communist-party/.
- Cunningham, J. A., M. Menter, and C. Young. 2017. A review of qualitative case methods trends and themes used in technology transfer research. The Journal of Technology Transfer 42 (4):923–56. doi: 10.1007/s10961-016-9491-6.
- Demena, B. A., and P. A. G. van Bergeijk. 2019. Observing FDI spillover transmission channels: Evidence from firms in Uganda. Third World Quarterly 40 (9):1708–29. doi: 10.1080/01436597.2019.1596022.
- Denzin, N. K. 2001. Interpretive interactionism. London: SAGE.
- Djazairess 2019. Huawei se lance dans le “Made in bladi”. Le numéro deux de la téléphonie mondiale ouvre une usine en Algérie. [Huawei is launching into “Made in bladi”. The number two player in the world’s telephony industry opens a factory in Algeria]. Accessed 02 December 2023. https://www.djazairess.com/fr/lexpression/308334
- Edwards, P. N., and G. Hecht. 2010. History and the technopolitics of identity: The case of apartheid South Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies 36 (3):619–39. doi: 10.1080/03057070.2010.507568.
- Elliot, S., and I. Sahar. 2020. Algeria’s new hydrocarbon law comes into force amid output slump. Accessed December 9, 2023. https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/natural-gas/010620-algerias-new-hydrocarbon-law-comes-into-force-amid-output-slump
- Erie, M. S., and T. Streinz. 2021. The Beijing effect: China’s “Digital Silk Road” as transnational data governance (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 3810256). Accessed Dece mber 3, 2023. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3810256
- Fannin, R. A. 2019. Tech titans of China: How China’s tech sector is challenging the world by innovating faster, working harder, and going global. Boston, MA: Nicholas Brealey.
- Feldstein, S. 2021. The rise of digital repression: How technology is reshaping power, politics, and resistance. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Fu, X., C. Pietrobelli, and L. Soete. 2011. The role of foreign technology and indigenous innovation in the emerging economies: Technological change and catching-up. World Development 39 (7):1204–12. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.05.009.
- Gagliardone, I. 2019. China, Africa, and the Future of the Internet: New Media, New Politics. 1st edition. Zed Books.
- Globerman, S. 1979. Foreign direct investment and “spillover” efficiency benefits in Canadian manufacturing industries. The Canadian Journal of Economics 12 (1):42–56. doi: 10.2307/134570.
- Guimón, J., C. Chaminade, C. Maggi, and J. C. Salazar-Elena. 2018. Policies to attract R&D-related FDI in small emerging countries: Aligning incentives with local linkages and absorptive capacities in Chile. Journal of International Management 24 (2):165–78. doi: 10.1016/j.intman.2017.09.005.
- Haddad, M., and A. Harrison. 1993. Are there positive spillovers from direct foreign investment? Evidence from panel data for Morocco. Journal of Development Economics 42 (1):51–74. doi: 10.1016/0304-3878(93)90072-U.
- He, Y. 2024. Chinese digital platform companies’ expansion in the Belt and Road countries. The Information Society 40 (2):96–119.
- Hecht, G. 2001. Technology, politics, and national identity in France. In Technologies of power: Essays in honor of Thomas Parke Hughes and Agatha Chipley Hughes, eds. M. T. Allen and G. Hecht, 253–94. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Heidenreich, M. (ed.). 2012. Innovation and institutional embeddedness of multinational companies. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
- Hernandez, K. 2019. Achieving complex development goals along China’s Digital Silk Road. (K4D Emerging Issues Report). Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. Accessed December3, 2023. https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/14396.
- Hillman, J. E. 2021. The Digital Silk Road: China’s quest to wire the world and win the future. New York: Harper Business.
- Hirschman, A. O. 2013. A generalized linkage approach to development, with special reference to staples. In The essential Hirschman, ed. J. Adelman, 155–94. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Holm, J. R., B. Timmermans, C. R. Østergaard, A. Coad, N. Grassano, and A. Vezzani. 2020. Labor mobility from R&D-intensive multinational companies: Implications for knowledge and technology transfer. The Journal of Technology Transfer 45 (5):1562–84. doi: 10.1007/s10961-020-09776-8.
- Huawei. 2017. Huawei announces new OpenLab in Cairo to build ICT ecosystem in Northern Africa. Accessed December 6, 2023. https://www.huawei.com/en/news/2017/12/Huawei-New-OpenLab-Cairo
- Iršová, Z., and T. Havránek. 2013. Determinants of horizontal spillovers from FDI: Evidence from a large meta-analysis. World Development 42:1–15. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.07.001.
- Javorcik, B. S. 2004. Does foreign direct investment increase the productivity of domestic firms? In search of spillovers through backward linkages. American Economic Review 94 (3):605–27. doi: 10.1257/0002828041464605.
- King, K. 2013. China’s aid and soft power in Africa: The case of education and training. Martlesham, UK: Boydell & Brewer.
- Kneller, R., and M. Pisu. 2007. Industrial linkages and export spillovers from FDI. The World Economy 30 (1):105–34. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9701.2007.00874.x.
- Kvangraven, I. H. 2021. Beyond the stereotype: Restating the relevance of the dependency research programme. Development and Change 52 (1):76–112. doi: 10.1111/dech.12593.
- Lall, S. 1992. Technological capabilities and industrialization. World Development 20 (2):165–86. doi: 10.1016/0305-750X(92)90097-F.
- Laouisset, D. E. 2021. Algeria import substitution policy: The case of the pharmaceutical industry. Les Cahiers Du Cread 37 (1):5–39.
- Larkin, B. 2013. The politics and poetics of infrastructure. Annual Review of Anthropology 42 (1):327–43. doi: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-092412-155522.
- Lean, C. S. 2001. Empirical tests to discern linkages between construction and other economic sectors in Singapore. Construction Management and Economics 19 (4):355–63. doi: 10.1080/01446190010022686.
- Lee, H., and S. Oh. 2006. A standards war waged by a developing country: Understanding international standard setting from the actor-network perspective. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems 15 (3):177–95. doi: 10.1016/j.jsis.2005.10.002.
- Li, R., and K.-C. Cheong. 2017. Huawei and ZTE in Malaysia: The localisation of Chinese transnational enterprises. Journal of Contemporary Asia 47 (5):752–73. doi: 10.1080/00472336.2017.1346697.
- Liu, Z. 2008. Foreign direct investment and technology spillovers: Theory and evidence. Journal of Development Economics 85 (1–2):176–93. doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.07.001.
- Liu, X., C. Wang, and Y. Wei. 2009. Do local manufacturing firms benefit from transactional linkages with multinational enterprises in China? Journal of International Business Studies 40 (7):1113–30. doi: 10.1057/jibs.2008.97.
- Ma, W. 2021. The digital war: How China’s tech power shapes the future of AI, blockchain and cyberspace. New York: Wiley.
- Mackinnon, A. 2019. For Africa, Chinese-built internet is better than no internet at all. ForeignPolicy.com, March 19. Accessed December 8, 2023. https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/19/for-africa-chinese-built-internet-is-better-than-no-internet-at-all/.
- Markusen, J., and A. Venables. 1999. Foreign direct investment as a catalyst for industrial development. European Economic Review 43 (2):335–56. doi: 10.1016/S0014-2921(98)00048-8.
- Mattli, W., and T. Büthe. 2003. Setting international standards: Technological rationality or primacy of power? World Politics 56 (1):1–42. doi: 10.1353/wp.2004.0006.
- McGregor, G. 2022. China emerges as lead funder for Egypt’s new administrative city. Accessed December 8, 2023. https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/12/china-emerges-lead-funder-egypts-new-administrative-city.
- MCIT (Ministry of Communications and Information Technology). 2016. Egypt’s ICT 2030 Strategy. Accessed December 8, 2023. https://mcit.gov.eg/en/ICT_Strategy.
- MFA (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PRC). 2009. Premier Wen Jiabao Talks with Trainees of Huawei Training Center in Egypt. Accessed December 8, 2023. http://nl.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zgyw/200911/t20091111_2641062.htm.
- Mitchell, T. 2002. Rule of experts: Egypt, techno-politics, modernity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Ning, L., and F. Wang. 2018. Does FDI bring environmental knowledge spillovers to developing countries? The role of the local industrial structure. Environmental and Resource Economics 71 (2):381–405. doi: 10.1007/s10640-017-0159-y.
- Ockwell, D. G., J. Watson, G. MacKerron, P. Pal, and F. Yamin. 2008. Key policy considerations for facilitating low carbon technology transfer to developing countries. Energy Policy 36 (11):4104–15. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2008.06.019.
- Oya, C., and F. Schaefer. 2019. Chinese firms and employment dynamics in Africa: A comparative analysis (Synthesis report). London: SOAS, University of London. Accessed December 8, 2023. https://www.almendron.com/tribuna/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/file141857.pdf.
- Pairault, T. 2017. La Chine au Maghreb: De l’esprit de Bandung à l’esprit du capitalisme. Revue de la Régulation 21 (21). doi: 10.4000/regulation.12230.
- Peyrat, O. 2012. Normes: Un outil caché de la stratégie économique chinoise (Standards: A hidden tool of Chinese economic Strategy). Le Journal de L’École de Paris du Management 6:30–7. Accessed December 9, 2023. https://www.ecole.org/fr/seance/961-normes-un-outil-cache-de-la-strategie-economique-chinoise.
- Rojec, M., and M. Knell. 2018. Why is there a lack of evidence on knowledge spillovers from foreign direct investment? Journal of Economic Surveys 32 (3):579–612. doi: 10.1111/joes.12207.
- Rwehumbiza, D. A. 2021. Huawei’s linkages with local firms in Tanzania: Idiosyncratic benefits and risks. Global Business and Organizational Excellence 40 (3):20–35. doi: 10.1002/joe.22076.
- Saggi, K. 2002. Trade, foreign direct investment, and international technology transfer: A survey. The World Bank Research Observer 17 (2):191–235. doi: 10.1093/wbro/17.2.191.
- Shen, H. 2017. Across the Great (Fire) Wall: China and the global internet. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois.
- Smeets, R. 2008. Collecting the Pieces of the FDI Knowledge Spillovers Puzzle. The World Bank Research Observer 23 (2):107–138. doi: 10.1093/wbro/lkn003.
- Smith, J., C. Cummins, and A. Krasodomski-Jones. 2021. Good foundations: Why Democracies should care about the wiring of the internet. Accessed December 9, 2023. https://demos.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Good-Foundations-Report-.pdf
- Statista, 2021. Share of youth unemployment in the Middle East and North Africa region in 2020, by country. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1259020/menayouth-unemployment-by-country/
- Tang, X. 2021. Adaptation, innovation, and industrialization: The impact of Chinese investments on skill development in the Zambian and Malawian cotton sectors. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 19 (4):295–313. doi: 10.1080/14765284.2021.1943734.
- Te Velde, D. W. 2002. Government policies for inward foreign direct investment in developing countries: Implications for human capital formation and income inequality. (OECD Development Centre Working Paper No. 193). Paris: OECD.
- Triolo, P., and A. Sherlock. 2020. “New infrastructure”: China’s race for 5G and networked everything has a new catchphrase. Accessed December 9, 2023. https://supchina.com/2020/07/01/new-infrastructure-chinas-race-for-5g-and-networked-everything-has-a-new-catchphrase/.
- Tsui, B. 2016. Do Huawei’s training programs and centers transfer skills to Africa?. (Policy Brief No. 14). Washington, DC: China-Africa Research Initiative, School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University.
- Tugendhat, H. 2021. Connection issues: A study on the limitations of knowledge transfer in Huawei’s African training centres. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 19 (4):359–85. doi: 10.1080/14765284.2021.1943194.
- Tugendhat, H. 2020. How Huawei succeeds in Africa: Training and knowledge transfers in Kenya and Nigeria. (Policy Brief No. 14). Washington, DC: China-Africa Research Initiative, School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University.
- UNCTAD. 2012. Technology and innovation report 2012: Innovation, technology and South–South collaboration. New York: United Nations.
- Vaaland, T. I., and E. Ishengoma. 2016. University-industry linkages in developing countries: Perceived effect on innovation. Education + Training 58 (9):1014–40. doi: 10.1108/ET-07-2015-0067.
- Wahab, S. A., R. C. Rose, and S. I. W. Osman. 2011. Defining the concepts of technology and technology transfer: A literature analysis. International Business Research 5 (1):61–71. doi: 10.5539/ibr.v5n1p61.
- Waterbury, J. 1985. The “soft state” and the open door: Egypt’s experience with economic liberalization, 1974–1984. Comparative Politics 18 (1):65–83. doi: 10.2307/421658.
- Winner, L. 1980. Do artifacts have politics? Daedalus 109 (1):121–36.
- World Bank. 2022a. Individuals using the internet (% of population). February 16, 2024. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS?locations=DZ.
- World Bank. 2022b. Mobile penetration per country. Accessed April 12, 2023. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.CEL.SETS.P2.
- World Economic Forum. 2017. The future of jobs and skills in the Middle East and North Africa: Preparing the region for the fourth industrial revolution (Executive briefing). Accessed December 9, 2023. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_EGW_FOJ_MENA.pdf.
- Yao, X., A. Tan, and R. Suttmeier. 2009. Standards of power? Technology, institutions, and politics in the development of China’s national standards strategy. Geopolitics, History, and International Relations 1 (1):46–84.