- Mikhail Gorbachev, quoted in the Los Angeles Times, 5 November 1987.
- The use of such principles and guidelines has its origin in 1948 in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNGA Res 217A (III); UN Doc A/810), probably the best-known and most frequently cited soft law document.
- The importance of sustainable development was brought to international prominence in 1987 by the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), created by the UN General Assembly in 1983: see Our Common Future (OUP, 1987).
- For example, in November 2000 the UN ESCAP organised in Bali, Indonesia, the Asia-Pacific NGO Symposium on Regional Perspectives and Initiatives for Achieving a ‘Sustainable Energy Future for All’. The authors of this article participated in this event.
- For a discussion of the role of ‘soft law’, see C Chinkin, ‘The Challenge of Soft Law: Development and Change in International Law’ (1989) 38 Int & Comp LQ 850; P Dupuy, ‘Soft Law and the International Law of the Environment’ (1991) 12 Michigan J Int L 215.
- A/Conf 151/26. See N A Robinson (ed), Agenda 21: Earth's Action Plan (Oceana Press, 1993).
- (1992) 31 ILM 881.
- United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs and World Energy Council, World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability, New York, 2000, at 3. Also available at http://www.undp.org/seed/eap/activities/wea/drafts-frame.html. Site visited 26 March 2001.
- Ibid, Chapter 3, ‘Energy, the Environment and Health’.
- See generally E Brown Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity (Dobbs Ferry, NY, 1988); E Brown Weiss, ‘Our Rights and Obligations to Future Generations for the Environment’ (1990) 84 American J Int L 198; L Gündling, ‘Our Responsibility to Future Generations’ (1990) 84 American J Int L 207. This principle was first recognised in Principle 2 of the Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment (1972) 11 ILM 1416. It is also referred to in Principle 3 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development ((1992) 31 ILM 874), article 4 of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ((1972) 11 ILM 1358) and in a number of UN General Assembly Resolutions (for example, Protection of Global Climate for Present and Future Generations of Mankind, GA Res 43/53, 6 December 1988, UN Doc A/Res/43/53, 27 January 1989.
- Proclaimed in Principle 7 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) 31 ILM 874.
- See, for example, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) 31 ILM 849 and its associated Kyoto Protocol (1998) 37 ILM 22.
- On the importance of national energy security, particularly for developed countries, see, for example, R Belgrave, C K Ebinger and H Okino (eds), Energy Security to 2000 (1987); G C Georgiou, ‘US Energy Security and Policy Options for the 1990s’ (1993) 21 Energy Policy 831; C L Orman, ‘The National Energy Strategy—An Illusive Quest for Energy Security’ (1992) 13 Energy LJ 251.
- See D Ong, ‘The Spratlys Dispute Over Marine Resources: Time for a New Approach?’ (1994) 12 Oil and Gas Law and Taxation Review 352; D Ong, ‘Joint Development of the Spratly Islands’ Marine Resources: Legal Problems and Prospects for Solutions’ (1993) 11 Oil and Gas Law and Taxation Review 158; G M Valero, ‘Spratly Archipelago Dispute: Is the Question of Sovereignty Still Relevant?’ (1994) 18 Marine Policy 314; L G Cordner, ‘The Spratly Islands and the Law of the Sea’ (1994) 25 Ocean Development and International Law 61.
- See, for example, articles 11–12 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ((1992) 31 ILM 849); article 11 of the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change ((1998) 37 ILM 22); articles 10–10A of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ((1987) 26 ILM 1541).
- World Energy Assessment, n 8 above, Chapter 5, ‘Energy Resources’.
- See the seminal work by Pace University Center for Environmental Legal Studies, Environmental Costs of Electricity (Oceana Publications Inc, New York, 1990).
- (1939) 33 AJIL 182 and (1941) 35 AJIL 684; 1931–1941 3 UN RIAA 1905
- (1941) 35 AJIL 684 at 716.
- Principle 21 reads: ‘States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.’
- This provision repeats the terms of Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration, except that the phrase ‘and developmental’ is added after the phrase ‘pursuant to their own environmental’.
- See, for example, L Sohn, ‘The Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment’ (1973) 14 Harvard Int L J 423.
- See H Hohmann, Precautionary Legal Duties and Principles of Modern International Environmental Law (Graham & Trotman, London, 1994), pp 191–203.
- For a general discussion of the problem of acid rain, see C C Park, Acid Rain: Rhetoric and Reality (Methuen, London, 1987); H Dowlatabadi and W Harrington, ‘Policies for and Mitigation of Acid Rain; A Critique of Evaluation Techniques’(1989) 17 Energy Policy 116; D P Adams and W P Page, Acid Deposition. Environmental, Economic and Policy Issues (Plenum Press, New York, 1985). For a discussion of the legal problems associated with acid rain, see, for example, J L Regens and R W Rycroft, ‘Options for Financing Acid Rain Controls’ (1986) 26 Natural Resources J 519.
- A J Bradbrook, ‘Energy Use and Atmospheric Protection’ (1996) 3 Australasian Journal of Natural Resources Law and Policy 25 at 28–29.
- Id, 30.
- The exact figure may vary from country to country depending on its energy mix. See eg Green Paper on Sustainable Energy Policy for Australia (AGPS, Canberra, 1996), at 20; R J Fowler, ‘International Policy Responses to the Greenhouse Effect and their Implications for Energy Policy in Australia’, in D J Swaine (ed). Greenhouse and Energy (1990), at 462; D A Lashof and D Tirpak, Policy Options for Stabilising Global Climate (US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 1990).
- See K C Tong, ‘Technical and Economic Aspects of a Floating Offshore Wind Farm’ (1998) 74 Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 399; A J Bradbrook and A S Wawryk, ‘The Legal Regime Governing the Establishment of Offshore Wind Turbines in Australia’(2001) 18 Environmental and Planning Law Journal 30.
- For a discussion of the different solar technologies, see World Energy Council, New Renewable Energy Resources (Kogan Page, London, 1994); A J Bradbrook, Solar Energy and the Law (Law Book Co, Sydney, 1984), Chap 1; S F Kraemer, Solar Law (Shepards Inc, Colorado Springs, 1978), Chap 3.
- This definition is taken from article 19(3)(a) of the Energy Charter Treaty ((1995) 34 ILM 360) and article 2(4) of its related Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects ((1995) 34 ILM 446).
- World Energy Assessment, n 8 above, Chapter 8, ‘Advanced Energy Supply Systems’.
- See, for example, A R Lucas, ‘Impact of Privatisation and Deregulation of Energy Industries on Canadian Environmental Law and Policy’ (1996) 14 JERL 68; G Kühne, ‘Incremental Regulatory Reform and Antitrust Law in the Energy Sector’(1996) 14 JERL 76; U Hammer, ‘Reorganisation of the Norwegian Electricity Market’(1996) 14 JERL 95.
- See, eg Australia: Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 (Cth); USA: Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act 1978; United Kingdom: Utilities Act 2000.
- Nuclear energy is not entirely free of carbon emissions as significant carbon emissions result from the construction of nuclear plant. See World Energy Assessment, n 8 above, Chapter 5, ‘Energy Resources’.
- See, for example, A J Bradbrook, ‘Energy Conservation Legislation for Industry’ (1992) 10 JERL 145.
- Id, at 153–155.
- See A J Bradbrook, ‘The Development of Energy Efficiency Laws for Domestic Appliances’ (1990) 12 Adelaide Law Review 306; W H Lawrence and J H Minan, ‘The Use and Implementation of Solar Energy Equipment Standards’ (1982) 3 Solar Law Reporter 781; California Energy Commission, California's Appliance Efficiency Standards: An Historical Review, Analysis and Recommendations, Report P400-83-020, 1983.
- See, for example, United States: Energy Policy and Conservation Act 1975, Pub L 94–163, 89 Stats 871; Australia: Electricity (Energy Labelling of Electrical Appliances) Regulation 1995, made pursuant to Electricity Act 1945 (New South Wales), s 37(2); Electricity (Electrical Articles) Regulation 1994, made pursuant to the Electricity Act 1994 (Queensland), s 266; Electrical Products Regulations 1990, made pursuant to the Electrical Products Act 1988 (South Australia), s 8.
- See Office of Technology Assessment, Improving Automobile Fuel Economy: New Standards, New Approaches, US Government Printing Office, Report OTA-E-504, 1991; A J Bradbrook, ‘Alternative Legal Measures to Improve the Fuel Efficiency of Motor Vehicles’, in Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Energy Efficiency: Compendium of Energy Conservation Legislation in Countries of the Asia and Pacific Region (United Nations, New York, 1999), at 105ff; A J Bradbrook and A S Wawryk, ‘Legislative Implementation of Financial Mechanisms to Improve Motor Vehicle Fuel Efficiency’ (1998) 22 Melbourne University Law Review 537.
- In some countries, ethanol and methanol have acquired a significant market share. The most spectacular success is Brazil, where 70 per cent of all motor vehicles now rely on ethanol rather than petrol. For a discussion of the situation in Brazil, see J Goldemberg, T B Johansson, A K N Reddy and R H Williams, Energy for a Sustainable World (Wiley Eastern Ltd, New Delhi, 1988), at 239ff; A de Oliveira, ‘Reassessing the Brazilian Alcohol Programme’ (1991) 19 Energy Policy 47. See generally A J Bradbrook and A S Wawryk, ‘Energy, Sustainable Development and Motor Fuels: Legal Barriers to the Use of Ethanol’ (1999) 16 Environmental and Planning Law Journal 196.
- See A J Bradbrook, Energy Conservation Legislation for Building Design and Construction (Canadian Institute of Resources Law, Calgary, 1992); G P Thompson, Building to Save Energy: Legal and Regulatory Approaches (Ballinger Publishing Co, Cambridge, Mass, 1980).
- For a general discussion of energy intensity, see H Khatib, ‘Energy Intensity: A New Look’ (1995) 23 Energy Policy 727; W H Golove and L J Schipper, ‘Restraining Carbon Emissions: Measuring Energy Use and Efficiency in the USA’ (1997) 25 Energy Policy 803.
- See Pace University Center for Environmental Legal Studies, Environmental Costs of Electricity (Oceana Publications Inc, New York, 1990).
- See n 7 above, and accompanying text.
- See J H Minan and W H Lawrence, ‘Product Standards and Solar Energy’, in J H Minan and W H Lawrence (eds), Legal Aspects of Solar Energy (Lexington Books, Massachusetts, 1981), at 153ff; W H Lawrence and J H Minan, ‘The Role of Warranties and Product Standards in Solar Energy Development’ (1981) 34 Vanderbilt Law Review 537; A J Bradbrook, ‘Eco-Labelling: Lessons from the Energy Sector’ (1996) 18 Adelaide Law Review 35.
- The original ECOSOC Guidelines for Consumer Protection were drafted in 1985 and adopted by General Assembly Resolution 39/248 of9 April 1985. The Commission on Sustainable Development recommendations are contained in document E/1992/31, Chap I, para 45, sec E. The revised Guidelines for Consumer Protection were adopted in ECOSOC Resolution 1999/7 of 26 July 1999.
- Discussed in A J Bradbrook, ‘The Development of a Regulatory Framework on Consumer Protection and Consumer Information for Sustainable Energy Use’ (2000) 5 Asia-Pacific Journal of Environmental Law 239.
- On this issue, see A J Bradbrook, ‘Energy Law as an Academic Discipline’ (1996) 14 JERL 190 at 214–215.
- Id, at 215.
- See, eg, Canada: Tobacco Products Control Act, Stats Can 1988, c 20; New Zealand: Smoke-Free Environments Act 1990 (NZ); Hong Kong, China: Smoking (Public Health) Ordinance 1982.
- For a discussion of solar access legislation, see A J Bradbrook, Solar Energy and the Law (Law Book Co, Sydney, 1984); M M Eisenstadt, ‘Access to Solar Energy: The Problem and its Current Status’(1982) 22 Natural Resources Journal 21; J W Gergacz, ‘Legal Aspects of Solar Energy: Statutory Approaches for Access to Sunlight’ (1982) 10 Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 1.
- In Australia, for example, see Water Management Act 2000 (NSW) and Emergency Services Funding Act 1998 (SA).
- See World Energy Assessment, n 8 above, at 86–95.
- An earlier version of the Proposed Statement of Principles was presented by the authors and discussed at the Clean Energy Conference 2000, held in Geneva, Switzerland, 24–28 January 2000.
Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law
Volume 19, 2001 - Issue 2